empiricism, as honestly accomplishing the defeat of the fundamental enemy of theism, social ethics, and personality.

The books that determine the direction of human life and affairs seem to me to be the really influential books, whether they are read by the many or the few. They constitute the century's watershed; because they are here, life takes this direction and not that, seeks this goal rather than another.

FROM ARTHUR T. HADLEY

President of Yale University

The books chosen in answer to this question must be selected for their results rather than for their merits. They should be the ones which have had the largest measurable effect on the world's thought and civilization.

A standard of this kind shuts out a number of works which have high artistic value, but whose influence has been somewhat intangible. The poems of Wordsworth and Browning, the novels of Scott and Thackeray, of George Eliot, and perhaps even of Balzac, fall under this head. Few people would deny that "Middlemarch" was a greater work of art than "Uncle Tom's Cabin;" but "Uncle Tom's Cabin" had a historic power which "Middlemarch" did not and could not possess. Our standard also shuts out those books whose influence was fragmentary-books which only contributed a small part in a larger general movement. The name of Tyndall is identified with the doctrine of the conservation of energy, and the name of Flaubert with the development of modern realistic fiction; but there is no one work either of Tyndall or of Flaubert which accomplished enough, in itself and by itself, to claim a place in our list.

We are compelled also to discriminate against those writers whose influence lay in a direction counter to the general trend of the century, and was neutralized by the logic of events. Neither Victor Hugo in fiction, nor Newman in theology, nor Marx and George in political economy, have had the power which they might have obtained if they had been working on the lines of progress instead of athwart them.

Finally, we must exclude the books of men like d'Annunzio and even Tolstoï, because their work is too recent for us to obtain a proper measure of its influence.

My list, as thus restricted, would fall into two groups, one of which belongs to the period from 1804 to 1824, and the other to the period from 1849 to 1863. The first group consists of Napoleon's Civil Code, Goethe's Faust, Hegel's Encyclopædia of the Philosophical Sciences, Schopenhauer's World as Will, and Froebel's Education of Man. The second group includes SainteBeuve's Mondays, Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, Spencer's Principles of Psychology, Darwin's Origin of Species, and Renan's Life of Jesus.

The absolutely sure names in this list are Goethe and Darwin; the most doubtful ones seem to me to be Sainte-Beuve and Renan, whose influence, though widespread and profound, was essentially transitory. Much is to be said for the substitution, in place of either, of Balzac's Comédie Humaine.

FROM A. M. FAIRBAIRN, D.D.
Principal of Mansfield College, Oxford

Your question as to what I regard as the ten most influential books of the century is not so easily answered as it might seem prima facie to be. For an influential book is not necessarily great; it may be little more than timely. A great book may not be in its own century at all influential, but may have to educate a constituency for itself. It may be said of the very greatest books in literature that they were not appreciated by their own age, in certain cases seem hardly to have touched it, though they have made after ages atone for the original neglect. It would be much easier to give the ten most influential men; still more easy to give the ten most influential ideas.

I. In philosophy: The most influential book here did not really rise in the nineteenth, but in the eighteenth century. For it is not open to question that the book which has most profoundly influenced all schools of philosophical thought is Kant's Critique of the Pure Reason. The question it stated, discussed, and attempted to answer has governed all the philosophical movement of our century.

But if we confine ourselves to books not simply potent within the century, but produced in it, I would select:

(a) Hegel's Wissenschaft der Logik.

This book, by the place it gave to thought, the mode in which it interpreted

our ultimate problems, the bold fashion in which it dared to apply its argument to our fundamental ideas and to the whole field of human knowledge, may, especially when taken in combination with the Phänomenologie des Geistes, on the one hand, and the Encyklopädie, on the other, will be described as the inaugurator of a great constructive and critical era in thought. (b) From a very different side I would place Comte's Cours de Philosophie Positive. In this book the whole course of French and English empirical speculation in philosophy and in politics took shape, and it opened before the eye of empirical philosophy a region of existence it had not hitherto recognized and that yet it needed to explain.

II. In science: Two ideas may be described as the great contribution of our century towards the interpretation of nature. First, the idea of the unity of force and the correlation of forces; secondly, the idea of the order of the succession of biological forms and the method of their origin, or the principle of evolution in organic life. So many have been concerned in the statement of the first idea that it is hard to select a single book as clearly entitled to the place of honor or distinction; but, as a convenient and lucid statement of the idea, I would select Sir William Grove's Correlation of the Physical Forces.

The second idea has its distinguished representative in Charles Darwin's Origin of Species. The supremacy of this work no one can question; it stands in its own order alone, a book immediately influential and worthy of all the honor which has ever been paid to it.

cal methods to familiar and famous history; modern criticism of sources, interpretation, and construction of events may be said to have begun with Niebuhr.

IV. In literature: Here, so far especially as English literature is concerned, Wordsworth's Lyrical Ballads (for though the first edition appeared two years before our century began, the second edition appeared with the century) takes the first place. It signifies the return to nature; it stands for the whole poetic development of the century.

(b) Scott's Waverley, which has the great distinction of being not simply a factor in literature, but in religion. For Scott not only powerfully influenced the romantic movement in Europe as a whole, but he was pre-eminently the factor that determined the mental attitude to the Middle Ages and to the mediaval Church of the Oxford men. The movement which stands associated with the names of Pusey and Newman owes historically its origin to Scott.

V. In religion: Here the book that is again an easy first is the book that was the most hated of the century, and perhaps in some respects not quite unworthy of hate-Strauss's Leben Jesu. It was influential more by what it compelled to be done than by what it did; but the attempt to apply historical method and criticism to the facts, the beliefs, and the persons of the early Christian faith, which has so marked our century, really began its active critical and fruitful life with the work of Strauss.

For the rest, I would be inclined to divide my homage between (1) Schleiermacher, who did so much to rehabilitate

(a) The younger Champollion's De l'écriture hieratique des anciens Egyptiens, together with the Lettre à M. Dacier. This book meant the recovery of an entire ancient world; from it scientific archæology may be said to start; and if we consider what has been accomplished not only in recovering the history of ancient Egypt but of Assyria and Babylonia, of Greece and the Levant, we shall see what an easy first, in point of influence, Champollion's work is.

(b) I would place alongside it Niebuhr's Römische Geschichte. It first applied criti

and (2) Thomas Chalmers, who had the courage to apply Christianity to our serious industrial and commercial problems, and also to give the most splendid illustration our century contains of the inability of civil law to regulate and to command the life with which God has inspired his Church.

But I should like to add two names, the one for his intense and imperious plea for the moral authority of God, as well as the duty and the ability of man, Thomas Carlyle; the other for the literary grace which enabled him to revivify a moribund ecclesiasticism, John Henry Newman.

man who dominated all academic departments during the second quarter of the century, and its influence is still potent in England and America.

3. Strauss's Life of Jesus, so far as it drew the conclusions of the Tübingen school and stirred religious and theological thought profoundly, should be included in an inventory of influences, although the merits of the book itself would not justify a place in this list.

4. Horace Mann's Educational Reports are the fountain-head of a reform that gave us the graded school system, as it now exists, although his views are now somewhat outgrown.

5. Uncle Tom's Cabin was another of the most effective books of the century.

6. As a specialist, who may be pardoned for what is perhaps an overvaluation of things in his ken, I should place Helmholtz's work on Auditory Sensation. This analyzed what had hitherto been thought to be an undecomposable element of the human soul, by methods the logical perfection of which has rarely been equaled and is worthy of a man to whom a colleague, himself eminent, paid perhaps the greatest compliment which one. savant could render another in saying that during his best years almost his every serious thought was a new contribution to the sum of human knowledge.

7. With some hesitation I would add Carlyle's French Revolution, which has not only so stirred the soul of two generations of readers, but, taken in connection with his style and the subject, brought out the dynamic power that directs human history and makes it so different from the record of man's plans.

8. Goethe's Faust is a work that looms up, as I read it year by year, as a monumental landmark.

9. If influential books may be stretched to include all a man's works, I should place Wagner in this list, because he re-edited the myths which constitute the best part of the ethnic Bible of his race and brought them home to the heart by the charm of a new musical method.

10. Lastly, I would add Ibsen as the dramatist of the future who, I think, has done more than any man now living to exalt the work of the artist, who creates, over that of the professor, who merely knows, and whose influence is likely to

silence those who expound the doctrine of art for art's sake in a way to exclude it from ethics, where man's supreme interests lie.

I find many other names, Niebuhr, Theodore Parker, Humboldt's Cosmos, Schleiermacher, Emerson, Lyell's Geology, Les Misérables, Dickens, Herbert Spencer, and others, which have claims to which the above are preferred only with the greatest hesitancy.

FROM WILLIAM DE WITT HYDE President of Bowdoin College

The eighteenth century stood on its rights, declared its independence, and reveled in revolution. In order to do these things the more conveniently, it suspended God from the world, either in the rationalistic relation of conclusion to premiss, or in the mechanical relation of cause to effect, or in the pantheistic relation of whole to insignificant part. The nineteenth century substitutes concrete relationships for abstract rights; reciprocity for independence; evolution for revolution. As the principle of all these evolving reciprocal relationships, it recognizes the presence in the world of One Conscious Spirit, related to each particular object and event and to each individual mind as the body is related to its constituent members, as the character and life-history of a man are related to his separate thoughts and deeds. The books of the century have been influential in proportion as they have borne witness to this central thought. In the first ten I should place :

1. Hegel's Logic, which taught that all that is derives its being from the Conscious Mind in whom "all thinking things, all objects of all thought," inhere.

2. Comte's Positive Philosophy, which turned men's thought from speculation about extraneous causes of social conditions to a study of the conditions themselves.

3. Lyell's Principles of Geology, which explained the configuration of the earth by forces now in operation, thus bringing inorganic matter within the realm of rational law.

4. Darwin's Origin of Species, which banished special creation and enthroned Immanent Reason supreme throughout the cosmic process.

5. Spencer's many-volumed Synhetic

Philosophy, which, though on metaphysical foundations, has reared a formula applicable to every province of matter and every problem of mind, thus fulfilling with marvelous richness of detail Hegel's prophetic outline of a universe reduced to the unity of one comprehensive Idea.

6. Carlyle's Sartor Resartus, which smashed the shams of hereditary custom and convention, setting up present worth and power to do the duty of the hour as the genuine heroism and the true nobility.

7. Emerson's Essays, which renounced allegiance to all external claims of gods and men and institutions, save such as win the spontaneous sanction of the Uni

8. Ruskin's Modern Painters, teaching with stern ethical sincerity, as the recently erected tablet in Westminster Abbey says of him, "to hold in loving reverence the poor man and his work, the great man and his work, and God and his work."

9. Mrs. Stowe's Uncle Tom's Cabin, which made the wrongs of the oppressed so vivid, and the brotherhood of the lowliest so real, that no sacrifice was too great to pay for their release.

10. Browning's Poems, which teach to the influential few who read them the infinite significance of every concrete situation; that in a world which is through and through organic "there is no last nor