he (Mr. Calderon) would be exceedingly glad of an opportunity to give them their £40,000 and have the treaty back again. Mr. Calderon asked me if I supposed the recent treaty would be ratified by the American Senate. I replied I had no reasonable doubt that it would be, and remarked that I supposed that England was now taking steps to obtain the same concession from the govMr. Calderon said he had little doubt of it, but he wished to see the American treaty, as it might afford a basis for demanding a revision of the Spanish treaty as to the manner in which this right was to be exercised. ernment of France. The remainder of this voluminous correspondence is occupied with subjects of less in terest. The volume is a proof of the vast labors of the Department of State, which has been conducted during the year with great ability and success, in preserving the peaceful and most friendly relations with foreign nations. DRURY BLUFF is situated seven miles below Richmond on the James river. It is in a commanding position, owing to the curve of the river, and was strongly fortified to prevent the approach of the Federal gunboats to Richmond. An attack was made upon it by the iron clad Galena and several gunboats, which were severely handled and retired. (See NAVAL OPERATIONS.) EARTH. Among the scientific deductions and speculations respecting our planet, put forth during the year, are some which would seem likely to lead to very considerable modifications of the views for some time entertained in regard to its constitution and behavior as a physical globe, and more especially in regard to the condition of its interior mass. Relative Sunshine of Different Zones. Prof. Hennessy, speaking before the British association on this subject, called attention to the fact that by means of transformation of a mathematical formula of Poisson, the area of that portion of the earth's equatorial regions which receives as great an amount of sunshine as all the rest of the surface, is readily ascertained. This area is found to be that which is bounded, at the outer limits of the earth's atmosphere, by parallels distant 23° 44′ 40′′ on each side of the equator. Since such parallels lie very slightly without the tropics, it follows that the amount of sunshine falling on the outer limit of the atmosphere, between the tropics, is very nearly equal to that falling upon the atmosphere corresponding to the entire remaining portion of the earth. Now, the researches of Prof. Forbes have shown that the portion of the sun's heat extinguished by the atmosphere during passage through it of a given solar ray, and before it reaches the surface of the globe itself, exceeds one half for all inclinations of the ray to the surface less than 25°; and that for inclinations of 5°, only about 2th part of the heat reaches the ground. The torrid zone, accordingly, must receive the action of by far the greater part of the sun's heat; and it will follow that the distribution of the absorbing and radiating surfaces within such zone must exercise an influence the extent of which is not usually suspected, in modifying the climates of all parts of the earth's surface. Extent of the Earth's Atmosphere. Prof. Challis, before the same body, argued that the earth's atmosphere could not extend so far as to the moon, since, in case it did so, some portions of it must attach themselves by gravita E tion to that satellite, and these having connection through friction with the rest, there would result a continual drag upon the earth's surface, retarding its rotation. If, then, the earth's rotation be uniform, its atmosphere cannot extend so far as in any degree to be drawn to the moon. Undoubtedly, as generally supposed, the atmosphere terminates at some height not very great, and abruptly; that is, with a definite boundary or surface, at which it has a small but finite density, and beyond which there are no more atmospheric particles. From considerations drawn from the rate of decrease of density in ascending from and near to the earth's surface, this height is usually placed at about 70 miles. Thickness of the Earth's Crust. Led chiefly by the phenomena of thermal springs, of earthquakes and volcanoes, together with the observed rise of temperature in descending in mines and the boring of artesian wells, and connecting with these the appearances of the lower or unstratified rocks, and the interpretation given to all the facts by Laplace's nebular hypothesis, geologists have for many years past become pretty generally agreed in regarding our globe as still possessing but a thin solid crust enveloping an intensely hot and molten core; and from calculations of the depths at which the metals and finally the most refractory rock materials must melt, the thickness of such crust has been supposed no greater than 100, 70, and by some even 30 miles. Within a very few years, however, objections to this theory, or at the least to that of such extreme thinness of solid earth, have sprung up in different and unexpected quarters. About three years since, the Rev. J. H. Pratt, residing at Calcutta, and to whom the immense quantity of matter piled up in the long and massive Himalayan chains had become a very patent fact, published his views to the effect that, through differing pressures at near parts of the crust, where the weight of chains like the Himalayas is far under-balanced by the diminished pressure on ocean bottoms, while the tendency of lava tides within the earth at times of conjunction of the sun and moon must conspire with such differences, the crust of the earth must at such places and times suffer rupture, unless at least 140, and more probably from 300 to 500 miles thick. To this, the Rev. Mr. Haughton replied that Mr. Pratt overlooks the principle of the arch, which serves to increase practically the strength of the strata, and also the very high crushing strength of granite-not less than 24,000 lbs. to the cubic inch. Prof. William Thomson presented before the Royal Society, May 15, 1862, a paper on the "Rigidity of the earth," considered in its bearings on this question. Premising that he would communicate also, on an early occasion, a mathematical theory of the deformation of elastic spheroids, and which would illustrate his conclusions in respect to the effect of the tide-generating influence of the sun and moon on the mass of the earth, he proceeded to show that unless the solid portions of the earth be on the whole of extremely rigid materialmore rigid than steel-it must yield to the attractions of those bodies, in the way of a tide of the solid strata, and to such an extent as very sensibly to diminish the actual oceanic tides, as well as the well known changes in direction of the earth's axis denoted under the terms precession and nutation. A homogeneous and incompressible elastic spheroid, of the same mass and volume with the earth, if it have the rigidity of glass, would yield to the luni-solar tide action to about, and if it have the rigidity of steel, to about, of the extent to which a perfectly fluid globe of equal density must yield. In the former case, the actual amounts of the water tides, and of the precession and nutation, would be only 3, in the latter, of the amounts that would hold true in case of a perfectly rigid spheroid of the like dimensions, figure, and supposed uniform density. But the theory of precession and nutation has always hitherto proceeded upon the supposition that the earth, in respect to its exterior form, is practically a completely rigid body; and the calculations deduced from such theory have closely agreed with observation. It is scarcely possible to admit that there can have been between the theory and facts any such discrepancy as required by the ratio of 3 to 5; and the conclusion then almost necessarily follows, that the earth, as a whole, is much more rigid than steel. The author suggests, as a further test, careful observations on the lunar fortnightly and the solar half-yearly tides, made say at Iceland and Teneriffe, since the agency of either the sun or moon in producing tides at and near the poles is greatest when such body has the greatest declination N. or S. of the equator; and by means of two such stations, the actual diminution of the ocean tide by an earth tide, if there be any, would more likely be ascertained. From data already at command Prof. Thomson regards it as certain that the general globe is far more rigid than glass, probably more so than steel. But in order to such result, the interior must be even more rigid than the superficial parts; and this is just what would be expected, if, the interior being solid, the enormous pressure upon it be taken into account. The actual rigidity, however, appears utterly inconsistent with the hypothesis of many geologists, of the earth as mainly a molten mass, inclosed in a shell 30 to 100 miles thick. These investigations confirm those of Mr. Hopkins, who is led to conclude that the solid crust cannot be at the least less than 800 miles in thickness; and in view of the apparent absence of any interference with ocean tides and precession, the author believes it impossible the solid portion of the earth should have a depth less than 2,000 to 2,500 miles. Excentrality of the Earth. Mr. W. Ogilby (Brit. Assoc.), uses the term excentrality to denote that quality in virtue of which the earth's centre of gravity, as he believes he has proved to be the case, is situated to one side of the axis about which its rotation takes place. He sets out with the principles that, in a freely revolving body like the earth, the axis of figure must, under all circumstances, coincide with the axis of rotation, and the centre of figure with the centre of the generating sphere. This centre is a mathematical point, fixed and immovable, whatever changes of revolution the body may undergo. But the centre of gravity is a physical point, its position dependent on the constitution of the body, and changing with alterations in the density or arrangement of its materials. Since the earth is neither a homogeneous body, nor composed of spherical shells severally homogeneous, its centre of gravity needs not coincide with its centre of figure; and facts lead to the conclusion that it does not, and further, that it does not remain a fixed point. These consequences follow from the irregular density of the globe, and again from the transportation always going on, of millions of tons of solid materials from one part of the earth to another, to say nothing of tides, rivers, ocean currents, or of possible effects of electrical currents within the earth. Reasoning from the known forms, places, and dimensions of the continents, and in like manner of the oceans, with the average depths of the latter, with other circumstances, Mr. Ogilby deduces the place of the earth's centre of gravity as full one statute mile toward the Asiatic side from its centre of figure. If, as probable, the axis of rotation originally passed through the centre of gravity-i. e., if it was a principal axis-this, provided that the centre of gravity had remained fixed, would have been indefinitely maintained. But with the revolution itself the transport of materials would probably commence; and the alteration of the globe accumulating during a given geological epoch, the gravitative centre would in the lapse of ages come to diverge materially from that of figure. Either, now, the axis keeping its place will be no longer a principal axis, or following the receding centre of gravity, the figure of the globe must change correspondingly, to allow of rotation about the new direction. The rigid materials of the earth forbid any gradual accommodation of the form; and the axis of rotation remains fixed; but the constraint thus imposed by the earth's rigidity on the axis occasions a pressure tending continually to restore the axis to the position in which it will be a principal axis, so that the materials of the globe may revolve with balanced forces about it. This tendency accumulating, must in the course of ages exceed the force of rigidity, which is a constant quantity, and the axis breaking away suddenly must be restored to the direction through the centre of gravity, becoming anew a principal axis. The accomplishing of such change must be attended with those fearful convulsions, dislocation of strata or bodies of land, and cataclysms, which mark the boundaries of geological epochs and which, at remote periods, change the face of the continents, alter the distribution of heat and cold, upheave mountain chains, and overwhelm whole tribes of organized beings in a common and general destruction. The author supposes that minuter displacements of the axis may go on, or suddenly occur, at other than these great epochs of change; and that earthquakes are perhaps the disturbances due to convulsive efforts of the revolving globe to throw its actual axis, which is not one of equilibrium, into the place of a principal axis, which would be such. It must be said at this point, that a careful consideration of the actual phenomena attending earthquakes, and of their connection with volcanic eruptions, will suggest many difficulties in regard to this part of the theory. Mr. Ogilby declares, however, that a comparison of the observations of Eratosthenes with those of the present time, after all due allowance for variation of obliquity of the earth's axis to that of the ecliptic and for errors of observation is made, proves that the latitude of Syene has increased within the last 2,100 years to the amount of 17' 21.5; and he intimates that the astronomer royal has recently detected a slight annual motion of the pole very nearly corresponding in amount to this. Mr. Robert Mallet, C. E., whose researches during a few years past into the phenomena of earthquakes have well nigh established the claims of Seismology to be regarded as a science, laid before the Royal Society, May 8, 1862, a sequel to his "Reports on Earthquake-Wave Experiments," and in which he gave the results for certain species of rocks, of investigations into the Velocity of Earthquake Waves. He first determined the ratio (modulus) of elasticity, separately, of slate and quartz rocks, hard and soft, and in directions both parallel and transverse to the direction in which the lamina (or the strata) of those rocks are placed: this, of course, involving 8 separate series of experiments, and in which the observations were made at intervals of pressure increasing continually by 1,000 lbs. He finds that generally quartz rock is less compressible than slate; while, on the contrary, the softest quartz is much more compressible than the softest slate, when the pressure occurs in both in the direction parallel to their laminæ. In the like direction, the hardest slate is more than twice as compressible as the hardest quartz. In the direction transverse to the lamina, slate and quartz, whether soft or hard, have in each condition very nearly the same compressibility; but in this direction, the compressions of the softest are about 4 times those of the hardest of these rocks. The great compressibility parallel to the lamina appears to arise chiefly from the fact that the mass of the rock is made up of minute wedge-shaped mineral particles, deposited with their largest dimensions lying mainly in the direction of the plane of the laminæ, and so acting upon each other like so many wedges. The wave transmitted transversely to the lamina will, if the rocks are equally solid and continuous both ways, be the greater; but breaks and discontinuity of any sort must retard its advance. Mr. Mallet deduces mathematically the conclusions that, were the rocks perfectly solid and continuous, the mean velocity of wave transmission for slate and quartz would be-transverse to the laminæ, 13,715 ft. per second; and parallel with the laminæ, 7,659 ft. per second. In nature, however, owing to the greater discontinuity of the rocks in the former direction, the relative velocities of waves in the two directions must be nearly the reverse of these. The results, though apparently disagreeing with those of Helmholtz and others in reference to compressibility and elasticity of wood in the three principal directions of section (see WOOD, New Amer. Cyclopædia), do not so disagree in reality. In case of an earthquake in Italy, Dec. 16, 1857, the phenomena of which Mallet has thoroughly investigated, and the primitive shock of which was delivered in an upward line (the seismic vertical), piercing the village of Caggiano, in the valley of Salaris, the actual velocity of the wave not far from this point was found to be 700-800 ft. per second; the velocity of any single wave-particle being 13-14 ft. per second. These velocities diminish with increasing distance from the central point of impulsion, until they disappear in parts where the wave ceases to be propagated. EDUCATION. The diffusion of education in the United States has been greater than in any other country of the world, excepting perhaps the kingdom of Prussia; but the expenditure for educational purposes is at the present time greater than in any other country. The instruction imparted has been chiefly elementary in its character, the larger part of the population being taught to read and write, and acquiring a knowledge of the elements of arithmetic, geography, history, and language. Yet secondary and higher instruction has not been neglected, and the facilities for it are rapidly increasing. Some statistics of the present extent and magnitude of the educational interest will exhibit more forcibly than can otherwise be done, what has already been accomplished for education in the United States. 1st, Primary Education.-An estimate of the facilities for common school education in the United States at the close of 1861, carefully prepared by Anson Smyth, late superintendent of schools in Ohio, gives the number of children in attendance upon those schools at that date as 5,211,000, or one in 5 of the free white population. Of these 4,560,000 were in what are now designated loyal States, with a population of about 18,000,000 whites, or one in four of the population; while in the other States, as a consequence of the extent of the plantations, the scattered and sparse settlements, &c., the number of children attending public schools was only 651,000 in a white population of about nine millions, or nearly one in 14 of the inhabitants. The expenditure for the support of public schools the same year was $23,461,000, or about 87 cents for each white inhabitant. This too was divided very unequally between the two portions, $20,385,000, or $1.13 to each free inhabitant of the former States, and $3,076,000, or 34 cents for each white inhabitant of the latter States. The amount of school funds belonging to the several States is not less than $50,000,000, of which the newer States hold the larger part, and when their school lands are sold, they will have many millions of dollars more. The largest expenditure for school purposes relatively to the population is in Illinois and Massachusetts, in the former State amounting to about $1.58 per head for the entire population, and in the latter to $1.34 per head. In Massachusetts, however, $1.21 per head is raised by taxation, while in Illinois only 76 cts. per head is raised in that way. In most of the Northern States the annual expenditure averages nearly $1 per head for the inhabitants. The wages of teachers average in the Northern States $30 per month for male teachers, and $17.25 for female teachers, inclusive of board in both cases. In the Northern States, schools are taught an average period of 6.5 months in the year. In most of the Southern States the average wages of teachers cannot be ascertained. Secondary Instruction. The number of private schools, high schooìs, academies, and boarding schools, in which a more advanced course of instruction is given (in some instances in connection with the elementary studies) is not to be ascertained exactly, some of the school reports giving no account of them, and the census returns of 1860, on this point, being as yet inaccessible; but from the most careful estimates, and comparisons of States where they are enumerated they cannot be less than 20,000, and are attended by more than 600,000 children. These schools were numerous in the Southern States before the war, and supplemented to some extent the lack of common schools; about 1,200 of them were boarding schools. The expenditure for board and tuition in these 20,000 schools has not been less than $20,000,000 per annum, and probably exceeds that sum, the boarding schools alone receiving over $10,000,000. The number of colleges (aside from agricultural and polytechnic colleges, which belong rather to the rank of professional schools) is about 240, and the number of undergraduates in attendance in any one year is somewhat more than 20,000. The average annual expenditure for board, tuition, room rent, and incidentals, deducted from the comparison of these expenses in about 100 colleges in different States, is $161 per annum, the entire expenditure for collegiate education would therefore be about $3,220,000, though the annual expenditure of these colleges, many of which are largely endowed, is not less that $5,000,000. The college in this country, considered as an institution for undergraduate instruction, is analogous to the gymnasium in Germany, and the lyceum in France. Higher Education.-The term university, used in so many senses in Europe, is hardly applicable to any of the educational institutions in this country. There are no universities like those of Oxford and Cambridge composed of numerous independent colleges, yet under a common government, and having a corps of university professors without connection with any one of the colleges more than another; nor like the University of London, an examining board, giving no instruction, but holding examinations and conferring degrees on members of thirty or forty colleges, scattered through the country; nor is there anything analogous to the German universities, which have no undergraduate course, but only impart instruction in theology, medicine, law, or philosophy; nor yet to the University of France, the great central controlling power over all education in the country, from the highest range of scientific study to the lowest primary or commercial school of the empire. The term university is often grossly misapplied in this country; an institution never intended to bestow anything beyond the ordinary classical and mathematical instruction of the undergraduate course in the colleges, and which, in fact, has only an academical or subcollegiate course, assumes very often the high title of university, while, in some cases, institutions like Yale College, which have, in addition to their college faculty, corps of instructors in theology, medicine, law, and physical science, are known only by the humbler title of college. Of institutions possessing four faculties of higher instruction, there are but two in this country, viz., Harvard University and Yale College. Of those having three there are five, viz., Dartmouth College, the University of the City of New York, the University of Pennsyl vania, the University of Virginia, and the University of Michigan; the last named may indeed be said to have four, as although only the professions of law and medicine are taught, it has a department of fine arts, as well as one of physical and mathematical science. None of the five have faculties of theology. Of the number having two faculties of higher instruction, there are eleven or twelve; some of them have faculties of theology and medicine, others of theology and law, others still of law and medicine, and one or two of theology, law, or medicine, and the physical and mathematical sciences. The number having a single faculty of higher instruction, usually theology or medicine, is 35. In four instances, under university charters, faculties of law or medicine (in two cases both) have been organized without any undergraduate course. These are the University of Albany, the University of Louisville, the University of St. Louis, and the University of the Pacific at San Francisco. In by far the larger number of cases, how ever, the professional schools are independent, or at most have a merely nominal connection with the colleges or universities under whose charter their degrees are conferred. There are, according to the latest returns, 92 theological seminaries in the United States, having 4,120 students. As tuition is generally free in these seminaries, the annual expenditure for board, room rent, and incidentals will average about $125 per head, or $515,000 for the whole, while the added expenditure from endowments for the salaries of professors, &c., will increase the aggregate yearly expenditure to more than $1,000,000. The number of medical schools is 55, having about 7,000 students, whose average annual expenditure for lecture, hospital, and dissection tickets, and board is never less than $200, and the aggregate yearly outlay $1,400,000. The number of law schools is 18, and the number of students 1,800; the annual expenditure of each is about $200, or $260,000 in the aggregate. The number of normal schools is 16, and of normal students 2,740. Their average annual expenditure is about $120 or $340,800; but, as a portion of the salaries and expenses are defrayed by the States, the entire annual cost of maintenance cannot fall below $500,000. The number of scientific schools, polytechnic colleges and institutes, and agricultural colleges in operation is 15, with an aggregate attendance of about 1,500 students. The annual expense per capita is not below $200, or $300,000, and the income of the endowments expended will increase the amount to about $400,000. In addition to these there are 53 institutions for the instruction and training of the deaf and dumb, blind, and idiots, having in all about 7,850 pupils, the average annual cost for whose education is $150, or $1,177,500. A near approximation to the amount annually expended for education in the United Medical schools. ..... $28,461,000 20,000,000 5,000,000 1,000,000 1,400,000 260,000 500,000 400,000 1,177,500 $58,198,500 400,000 Special instruction: Blind, deaf mutes, idiots, &c. Total annual expenditure for education To this may be added Government expenditure for the support of the Military Academy at West Point and the Naval Academy, about.. Total expenditure for education annually.. $58,598,500 There has been, within a few years past, a commendable advance in the quality and extent of the instruction imparted in the colleges and schools of the country. In most of the colleges of the Eastern and Middle States, and in some of those of the Southern and Western, the instruction in the mathematical and physical sciences will compare favorably with that of the best European colleges and gymnasia. In a few cases the classical instruction is very thorough, but generally the colleges do not impart as complete and satisfactory a knowledge of the Latin and Greek languages as the European schools. Latin is seldom spoken, and not often written, except for salutatory orations or the like. In the academies and public schools there has been a marked advance in the thoroughness and carefulness of the teaching. In the elementary studies excellent manuals have been prepared, and no nation of the world has, probably, better text books for common school education than are found in the United States. The multiplication of normal schools, teachers' associations, teachers' institutes, and educational journals, have also contributed powerfully to the improvement of the schools and the elevation of the profession of teaching. 66 During the past year there has been a remarkable interest awakened among teachers and friends of education by the effort to introduce into the primary schools a system of instruction known as object_teaching," or "teaching by object lessons." The excitement and enthusiasm in regard to it has equalled, and perhaps exceeded, that by which Joseph Lancaster's monitorial system was received. Now, as then, educated men, occupying high positions in society, urge the general adoption of this new method, "as the best and most efficient system of teaching in primary schools."* There is not now, more than in former times, larged free school in New York, said: "I confess that I rec*In 1810, De Witt Clinton, in a speech on opening the enognize in Lancaster the benefactor of the human race. I consider his system as creating a new era in education, as a blessing sent down from heaven to redeem the poor and distressed of this world from the power and dominion of ignorance." Again in his message in 1818, Gov. Clinton says: ment, which, by wonderful combination in reduction of ex"I can confidently recommend 't as an invaluable improvepense and rapidity of instruction, has created a new era in education." President Nott, in 1811, endorsed in terms almost as strong the new method, and John Adams gave it his hearty approval. |
