III. What, we may now ask, in the third place, is the proper object of the Divina Commedia ? We do not mean to speak of its object or use, in the common sense of the term. Poetry, like Philosophy and Religion, is no mere means to serve some object lying out of itself. It is its own end, bearing its absolute worth in itself, and hence to be sought after for its own sake. Nor does it aim at any special practical use, but is sufficient in itself, and moves in the ether of liberty. But precisely on account of this high position, it is more than merely useful and serviceable in the common sense. In using the term object, then, we mean something immanent, that cannot be separated at all from the poem itself, and is identical with its proper sense. Dante himself makes it to consist in this: to lead the living out of he condition of misery into the condition of happiness.* He himself had, out of is errors, which he represents under the orm of a dark forest, at the commencenent of the poem, led by a higher hand, and through the contemplation of eternity nd the whole world, sub specie æterniatis, found rest for the out-goings of his onging soul, in the peace-giving garden of Christ, the object of his desire. So far he Divine Comedy is a history of his erors and his deliverance. On this account e represents himself as in Hell, a particiant and deeply interested spectator; in 'urgatory as a penitent, to whom the first eps were immensely difficult, and from hose heart the seven mortal sins, like the ven P's upon his forehead, pass away ly gradually and through actual penThen first does he become worthy obtaining, as a foretaste, a glimpse of at blessedness, of which he also is once become a participant.§ But to this subctive meaning of the poem, we must add so its objective. For in Dante's heart d life is mirrored forth the whole world, d in this view, the Divine Comedy is ice. also a description of human life in general, in its course from the world towards God, from time towards eternity, from sin towards holiness, from misery towards bliss. It is, we may say, a poetical "Pilgrim's Progress from this world to that which is to come." The way of salvation leads, for all, through the knowledge of sin, (Inferno,) through the pains of penitence, (Purgatorio,) and through the contemplation of the mercy and glory of God and the salvation of his saints, (Paradiso.) On this way towards saving knowledge, man is not left to himself, but, on the contrary, he has for his guide history, or tradition in its widest and best sense, which God himself uses as his instrument. This leads us to remark on the meaning of the companions of Dante in his journey to the other world. These are three: Virgil, Beatrice, and Bernard of Clairvaux. Virgil is the representative of human wisdom. and natural virtue. The scholastic theology did not look upon heathenism as altogether without truth, but as irradiated in some measure, remotely at least, by the beams of the Logos; and the system of Roman Catholicism, as a whole, it is well known, has taken up into its own life much of heathenism itself even, under a Christian form. In general, too, classical literature still forms the foundation of all higher scientific culture. Dante has interwoven into the first part of his poem manifold elements of Grecian and Roman mythology, which is sufficient to show, that he did not regard it as purely error. Aristotle was generally regarded during the middle ages, as the highest representative of merely human wisdom. Hence his philosophy forms the foundation of the whole scholastic theology. It was usual to compare him with the morning-dawn, ushering in the sun of Christianity, Hence he was called the heathen John the Baptist, the precursor Christi in naturalibus; and there was no end to the praises of his acuteness In the letter of Dante, already quoted, he says: Est subjectum totius operis litteraliter tantum accepti status animarum post mortem simpliciter sumptus. Nam de illo et circa illum totius operis versatur processus. Si vero opus accipiatur allegoricè, subjectum est homo, prout merendo et demerendo per arbitrii libertatem justitiæ præmiandi et puniendi obnoxius est. + Comp. Inf. i. 65, where gran deserto, referring to Virgil, may perhaps allude to the "vox clamantis in deserto; parate viam Domini." self needs the guidance of angels from terrace to terrace. On the mountain of Purgatory Virgil is hence the representstive, not of the common Paganism, but of that which in prophetic anticipation goes beyond itself. and profundity. But Dante chose Virgil | he makes uncertain and timid steps, and in preference to Aristotle as the represen- calls himself a stranger who is unac tative of human wisdom, for the following quainted with the way.* Hence he himreasons probably. In the first place Virgil was a poetical personage, and hence a much more suitable conductor and expounder in a poem than the abstract philosopher Aristotle. And then also, Dante stood to Virgil in the near relation of a grateful scholar.* By his means had he developed his poetical talent, and could hence call him "sweet father." Further, Virgil, in the sixth book of the Æneid, gives a description of the spiritual world as far as Elysium, (which Dante regards as, to a certain extent, a shadowy picture of the Terrestrial Paradise,) and comes even to a certain kind of Purgatory. Hence it was also customary to look upon this book as prophetical of Christianity. And lastly, Virgil was highly celebrated during the middle ages, as the singer of proud, heathen Rome, in which Dante saw a type of the world-dominion of the Christian Papacy. Virgil, then, is the representative here of worldly wisdom. He comes not of his own accord to Dante, but as sent by Beatrice, who has been incited thereto by Saint Lucia, at the desire of the Virgin Mary, the symbol of sympathetic, preventing, and intercessory grace.§ This is intended to show that even heathen wisdom stands under the guidance of a higher influence, and is compelled to become subservient to revelation. He accompanies the singer of the Divine Comedy through Hell and Purgatory, for natural reason and philosophy may bring men to a certain knowledge of themselves in the state of sin, punishment, and penitence. But it is plain, at the same time, that Virgil is most at home in Hell. Here he takes sure steps. 'Ben so il cammin," says he: ("I know the way well.")||| Only in that region where Hell has changed its form, by reason of the earthquake at Christ's death, is he forced to inquire the way. In Purgatory, on the other hand, he finds himself more in the sphere of mere presentiment; 66 Inf. i. 85-87. Inf. viii. 109; Purgat. xxvii. 52. B. vi. 735-747. Inf. i 52 ff. 95 ff. Inf. ix. 30 Inf. xii. 91-94; xxiii. 127-132. Having reached the summit of the mount of purification, Virgil is compelled to return, and the office of conductor is now fulfilled by a higher spirit. For Philosophy can come only to the threshold of revelation; God himself and the proper blessedness of the soul, the natural man is unable to comprehend. Beatrice, who accompanies our poet through Paradise, is evidently the representative of Theology, (which rests upon Divine revelation,) or of Christian Wisdom. Since the centre of this, and the chief object of its knowledge is the love of God, subjectively and o jectively, (that of God towards men, and men towards God,) Beatrice is well suited to be its representative; for in her, Dank | as a boy had already seen the ideal of a pure ethereal love, and through her first had his sense for poetry and a higher world unfolded itself. Saint Bernard lastly, is the representative of mystic o templation, which is required necessary by the scholastic theology as its prop complement. In opposition to the sche tic Abelard, who drew everything dễ into the sphere of the dialectic understa ing, his motto was: "God is known, s far as he is loved." The contempla: of the pious heart, according to stands even higher than Faith itsHence it is he that leads Dante to upon the Trinity, after preparing his for it by previous prayer.§ IV. In conclusion, it remains st cast a glance on the relation of Dat Protestantism. This sublime poet has urally not been wanting in interprete * Purg. ii. 61-63. E Virgilio rispose: voi credete Forse, che siamo esperti di esto loco; Ma uoi sem peregrin, come voi siete. Purgat. xviii. 46-48; xxxiii. 10 Com xxxi. 130, where the three so called thee-c virtues, Faith, Love, and Hope, dance sŞA| around Beatrice. lof. ii. 105; Purg. xxx. 121-123. § Parad. xxx. 147-151. who use him as a weapon against Protes- | ically, to the Catholic Church of the midtantism, as though belonging exclusively dle ages, of which he may be regarded to the Roman Church. The ablest inter- as the poetical representative. His theolpreter of this kind is the Frenchman, Dr. ogy, especially the eschatology, apart from Ozanam, a jurist, whose work has also the formal additions of a poetic fancy, been translated into the German.* He agrees with the scholastic, whose object even goes so far as to put Luther on a par was, as is well known, to justify the tradiwith the Monk Dolcino, whom Dante pla- tion of the Roman Catholic Church, in its ces in the eighth circle of Hell, among the whole compass. In accordance with this, disturbers of the peace. Some on the he sees in the papacy also a divine instituother hand, with a profound and thorough tion. He regards the Roman Bishop as knowledge of Dante, have attempted to lay the successor of St. Peter, the chief shepclaim to his work in favor of the reforma- herd of the Church.* But on the other tion, especially so Goschelt and Graul.§ hand, he is no friend of the absolute power Nay, some have even gone so far as to at- of the Pope. He does not regard him as tribute to Dante a prophecy of Luther, standing above a General Council of Bishsince Veltro, the grayhound, under the ops, and as being infallible separately figure of which Virgil predicts to our taken. For in the eleventh song of the poet a reformer that was soon to arise in Inferno (v. 7-9) we meet with a heretical the Church, has the signification anagram- Pope, Anatasius, of the fifth century, who, matically of LVTERO; and the Flor- as the story goes, had denied the divine entine Landino, in his commentary on the nature of Christ. Besides, Dante will Divine Comedy, which appeared in 1481, allow to the Popes only the spiritual sucalculates that the birth of this reformer, premacy of the Church, assigning the temaccording to the passage in Purgat. xxx. poral to the German Emperor. His histo31, would take place on the 25th Nov., rico-philosophical view was this. In anti1484, which coincided almost with the quity, there were two chosen nations, a date of Luther's birth, (10th Nov., 1483.) spiritual and a secular one. The Jewish This, to be sure, is a mere conceit, although nation was chosen to prepare the way for a remarkable coincidence. Under the the introduction of the Church of Christ, swift grayhound, Dante understands Can- and its spiritual head; the Roman nation, grande della Scala, (can means hound,) whose authority in secular matters even who afterwards became the chief of the Christ acknowledged, was chosen to preGhibelline party in Italy; and he at that pare the way for the introduction of the ime indulged in the pleasing hope, that Christian state, and its imperial head. e, in connection with the German Empe- Both branches of history united in Chrisor, might put an end to the pernicious tianity, and its middle point, Rome, but ecular dominion of Rome. under two sceptres: to the Pope belongs the spiritual supremacy of the church and its Bishops; to the German Roman Emperor, the secular supremacy of the Christian States and their princes. Hence he There is no doubt but that Dante, in his undamental religious views, belongs, rad Dante et la Philosophie Catholique au Treizième iècle. Par A. T. Ozanam. Paris, 1839. With im agrees on this point also, Artand de Montor, in is Historie de Dante Al. Paris, 1841. † Infer. xxviii. 55. Bruchstürke aus Dante Aligh.'s Glaubenslehre. hree articles in Hengstenberg's Evangel. Kirchenitung, 1841. The Divina Commedia of Dante Alighieri, anslated into the German, with historical elucidaons, &c., by Charles Graul, Leipsig, 1843, P. I. Iv. ff. Comp. his article on Dante, in the Genal Repertory for Theological Literature and hurch Statistic, by Lie. H. Reuter, Berlin, 1845, b. number, p. 118 ff, and especially 129 and 130. right, in his English translation, in three vols., the 'D. Comm. in rhyme, London, 1839-1840, is accompanied it with parallels and elucidations om Protestant writers; but the work we have not en. * Parad. v. 76; Purg. xvi. 98; Inf. xix., 100, 103. However strongly Dante inveighs against Boniface VIII., (Inf. xix. 52 ff.,) he still regards his imprisonment in Anagui, by Philip the Beautiful, as a sin against Christ. This passage was made use of as early as the time of Bellarmin in a Protestant work, which had for its object to win Italy for the evangelical faith through the authority of its greatest poet. It bears the title, Avviso piacevole data alla bella Italia da un nobile giovane Francese. Comp. Bellarmin's Controv. lib. IV. de Rom. Pontif. c. 10. Comp Purg. xvi., 97-114; 127-129; Parad. vi. 82-90, 91, 92; and Dante's Latin work De Monarchia, which was most probably composed between the years 1310 and 1313, during the time Henry VII. was endeavoring to restore again the Imperial authority in Italy. inveighs strongly against the worldly views and avarice of the then Popes. He wishes them to restore to the Emperor what of right belongs to him,* and to return again to the poverty of the early Bishops. He meets a mass of Popes and Cardinals in Hell among the avaricious. He is particularly bitter against Nicholas III., (died 1280,) Boniface VIII., (died 1303,) and Clement V., (died 1307,) whom he places together in the eighth circle of Hell, because they had been guilty of simony, that is, of selling ecclesiastical offices for money, (Acts viii. ;) thus bringing down the heavenly to the level with the earthly. On account of this perversion, the simonists are compelled to stand with their heads in holes of the earth, and their legs on high; from their naked soles stream forth flames, like tongues of fire; intended, doubtless, to represent the gift of the Holy Spirit, given to them at their ordination, but which became their curse.§ Dante reminds Nicholas, that Christ received no money from Peter, when he committed to him the power of the keys, and charged him with the feeding of his lambs. "Follow me," (John xvi. 19,) was the only condition. Nor did Peter receive money from Matthias, when he was chosen in the place of Judas. "You, shepherd!" he proceeds, "John had in his eye when he beheld the woman sitting upon many waters, committing fornication with the kings of the earth, (Rev. xvii. 1-2.) You differ from the idolator only in this, that he worships one, but you a hundred idols." "Ah, Constantine," he exclaims, *Purg, xxx. 37-39. † Parad. xxvii. 40-45. Inf. vii. 46-48. A contrast to this is formed by Pope Hadrian V., who became converted after his ascension to the papal chair, but was still required to perform penance on account of his former avarice, Purg, xix. 91-145. § Inf. xix. 22 ff. Nicholas, according to Villani, was the first Pope who was guilty of open simony in favor of his relatives, (nepotismus.) Dante, with reference to his family name Orsini, (from orso, bear,) causes him to say, v. 69-73: E veramente fui figlinol della orsa, Che su lo avere, e qui me misi in borsa. Both Boniface and Clement were still living in the year 1300, which the poet makes the date of his vision, but their places in Hell were already assigned them, and Nicholas in expecting them, in fact mistakes Dante at first for Boniface. inf. xix. 90-97. xix. 106-114. "To how much ill gave birth, Not thy conversion, but that plenteous dower, Which the first wealthy Father gained from thee."* Dante, in general, testifies very strongly against the secularization of the hierarchy, and inveighs also against the once so richly blessed Dominican and Franciscan orders, sometimes in zealous, angry tones, then again in mournfully plaintive language, and again with tender intercessory words, and insists with all earnestness upon a thorough reformation in head and members, with reference, not so much indeed to the doctrines as the discipline and practice of the Church. Beatrice also shows him, in a striking manner, the rejuvenescence of the vineyard of the Lord; and what is remarkable, his eyes are constantly directed, full of hope, to Germany, from whence the reformation in fact came, although later than he thought, and not from the German Emperor as he expected, but from a poor and lowly monk. Dante has thus, as is the case with so many great men, a double face; one of which looks into the past, the other towards the future. He stands, as we have already remarked, on the turning-pont between two periods. Although the most enthusiastic singer of the middle ages, his is yet, at the same time, one of the first voices on Roman Catholic ground. which demanded a thorough reformation of the Church, like that called for by the great reformatory Councils of the fifteenth century. When Rome obstinately shut bet ears against these voices of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, becoming ever stronger and more pressing, the opposition grade ally took a more anti-Roman and anti-Papistical character; the issue of which, a last, was the rise of an independent chur into which the best powers of the mids ages streamed over. Protestantism is the fulfilment of the prophecies which spe forth from the very midst of the rig church of the middle ages. We are not willing, then, as Protestar's to renounce Dante, and to yield up th enjoyment of his immortal poem altogether * Inf. xix. 115-117. † Parad. xii. 86-96; Purg. xxxii. 124-129; x 34-37. Comp. especially the prophetic passage, Pa xviii. 34-60. to the Roman Church. We look upon the middle ages as the fertile soil of the reformation, upon Catholicism as an indispensable prerequisite and preparation of Protestantism. Dante's age, the particular form of his thinking, feeling, poetry, and life, has passed away, and can never again be revived. But we gaze back upon it, with an interest similar to that with which we look upon our youth, which, although past forever, belongs still to the marrow of life, to the sum of our existence, and in so far has an everlasting meaning. We find in the Divine Comedy, under these antiquated forms, many grains of gold, It is the principal fault of Leigh Hunt's book on Dante, which has just now come into our hand, (stories from the Italian poets, P. I.) that he requires Dante not only to tolerate all sorts of nonsense, but also to send all men, however wicked their lives may have been, to heaven, like a sentimental Universalist of modern stamp. This is quite as ridiculous as if a Chinese should abuse England, because no tea grows there. which are not subject to the change of times, and which we can gaze at with ever increasing delight. It is something great and beautiful to be in the possession of a lively sympathy with humanity, in all its stages of development, and especially with the Church of God of all ages and generations. Happy is he who has elevated himself to that stand-point of universal observation, where the different periods of history appear as the connected links of one glorious chain, and where all great men that have had a truly divine mission to humanity, unite in the most manifold tones of one harmonious hymn of praise to the One God. To such a one, history is a book of life, full of consolation, instruction, reproof, and enjoyment, from its commencement to its close. In the centre stands Christ and His Church, the star and central point, from whence light streams forth over all parts of the periphery. P. S. |