mmon veins and streaks; f, lode; i, branch; k, reticulated veins; l, m, pockets; n, laminated uddle;, placer. 2. Part of a Freiberg lode; a, sulphides, sulphates, and sulphurets; 6, quartz; es in granular limestone at Monte-Calvi, in northern Italy. 5. Prolonged and displaced gangue one at the Ural. 8. Double gangue at Freiberg. 9. Run and ramification of gangues at Freiberg.

Strauss.

indefinite period. Each of the different beds composed of the same kind of material is called a stratum. Thus, in the series mentioned, there would be a "stratum" of clay, one of sand, and then one of calcareous matter. An assemblage of strata having a common age is called a "formation," and this term is also extended to rocks which agree in their composition or origin. Thus, we speak of stratified and unstratified, aqueous and igneous, fresh-water and marine, primary and secondary, metalliferous and non-metalliferous formations. As a formation is composed of many different beds, so a stratum is frequently made up of several "lamina" or "layers." The lamina have a more or less firm cohesion, but the strata easily separate from each other. Sometimes the cohesion of the lamina is so great that it is as easy to split the rock against as with the grain. In such compact rocks the lamination is obscure, or altogether imperceptible in fresh specimens, but whenever they are exposed to the influence of the weather, it becomes obvious. The lamina have been produced by short interruptions in the deposition, similar to what might be the result of tidal or other intermittent action. The degree of cohesion may be the result of rapid succession in the acts of deposition, but it is frequently produced by metamorphic action subsequent to deposition. The planes of stratification want the complete coalescence characteristic of lamination; when the contiguous layers are closely united, it is the result of the adhesion of two bodies. and not of their coalescence into one. In addition to accompanying illus., see GEOLOGY, Vol. VI.

STRAU’BING, a t. of Lower Bavaria, on the right bank of the Danube, 25 m. s.e. of Ratisbon, lies in a very fertile valley, and carries on a river-trade in corn, cattle, and horses. There is a monument to Agnes Bernauer (q.v.). Pop. '95, 15,596.

STRAUSS, DAVID FRIEDRICH, author of the famous Leben Jesu, was b. on Jan. 27, 1808, at Ludwigsburg, in Würtemberg. His education was begun in his native town, and completed in the theological seminaries of Blaubeuren and Tübingen. In 1830, his head filled with Hegel's philosophy and Schleiermacher's theology, he entered on the simple life of a country pastor, but already in the following year he was in Maulbronn acting as professor in the seminary, and went thence to Berlin for six months to continue his Hegelian studies, and hear the lectures of Schleiermacher. Returning to Tübingen in 1832, he became repetent in the theological seminary, and in the next years held also philosophical lectures in the university as a disciple of Hegel. Known as yet only to a narrow circle, he became all at once a man of mark by the publication, in 1835, of his Life of Jesus critically treated; translated into English by George Eliot in 1846. In this work, written from the point of view of a Hegelian philosopher, and designed only for the learned, he attempted to prove the received gospel history to be a collection of myths gradually formed in the early Christian communities, and, sought by an analytical dissection of each separate narrative, to detect, where it existed, a nucleus of historical truth free from every trace of supernaturalism. The book made a real epoch in theological literature, and produced a violent excitement in and out of Germany, calling forth numberless replies from opponents, frightening many by its bold disregard of consequences back into the ranks of orthodoxy, and stirring up others to similar investigations. The first consequence to the author was his dismissal from his academical position in Tübingen, and transference to the lyceum of Ludwigsburg. He resigned the new post, however, very soon in 1836, and refired into private life at Stuttgart, to have leisure to defend himself. In 1837 he published his Streitschriften against his opponents; and in 1838 Zwei friedliche Blätter, a more conciliatory exposi tion of his views. Early in 1839 he was called by the board of education in Zürich to be professor of dogmatics and church history in the university; but the step raised such a storm of opposition among the public that the proposition had to be dropped, and even the government itself had to resign in the same year. Thrown back on his litterary labors, Strauss, who had published during the year his Charakteristiken und Kritiken, sent forth shortly afterward his second great work, Die Christliche Glaubenslehre, a review of Christian dogma "in its historical development and its struggle with modern science" (Tüb. 1840-41). This formed a natural sequel to the purely critical investigation of the origins of Christianity in the first work. When Strauss, after a long period of silence, next appeared on the literary field, it was no longer as a professed theologian. In 1847 he drew attention by a work entitled, Der Romantiker auf dem Throne der Casaren, oder Julian der Abtrünnige, full of direct allusions to the political situation of the day. His fellow-townsmen put him forward as a candidate for the German revolutionary parliament of 1848, but he was unable to stand against the clerical influence brought to bear upon the country-people of the district. His speeches on this occasion were published under the title of Six Theologico-political Popular Addresses, and his native place compensated the defeat by sending him as its representative to the Würtemberg diet. From this position, however, when he unexpectedly displayed conservative leanings, and incurred a vote of censure from his constituents, he retired before the end of the year. A life of the Swabian poet Schubart (1849), and another biographical work, Christian Märklin, a Picture of Life and Character from the Present (1851), giving an insight into his own mental development, were his next literary efforts, before another period of silence. His third period of activity was opened in 1858 by a remarkable life of the reformer, Ulrich von Hutten (Eng. trans. 1874), followed up by the publica

tion of Hutten's Dialogues in 1860. These books, though primarily of strictly historical interest, were nevertheless calculated for the present state of religious affairs in Germany, and contained fiercely contemptuous denunciations of the tactics of the reaction. ary party in the church. A collection of miscellaneous Minor Writings appeared in 1862, and a new Life of Jesus, composed for the German people, in 1864 (Eng. trans. 1865). The title of the work indicates its popular cast, the peculiar features of it being a long critical statement of the labors of others in the same field down to the present day, and an attempt to construct a life out of all the positive results that have been gained. The mythical hypothesis is retained, but applied differently. Still later publications which appeared in 1865 are Der Christus des Glaubens u. der Jesus der Geschichte (Berlin), a criticism of the newly published lectures of Schleiermacher on the life of Jesus, and a brochure, Die Halben u. die Ganzen, directed against Schenkel and Hengstenberg. The polemic against Schenkel, professor of theology in Heidelberg, a leader of the liberal party in the church of Baden, and author of the Charakterbild Jesu (1864), arose out of an earlier notice of this book by Strauss. In 1872 he published his last work, Der alte und der neue Glaube, in which he endeavors to prove that Christianity as a system of religious belief is practically dead, and that a new faith must be built up out of a scien tific knowledge of nature. Strauss died in 1874. An edition of his collated works (Gesammelte Schriften) began to be published in 1876. The literary, critical, and polemical powers of Strauss must be pronounced to be of the highest order. No more effective German prose than his has been written since Lessing.-See Life of Strauss, by E. Zeller (Eng. trans. 1874).

STRAUSS, JOHANN, 1804-49, b. Vienna; was a member of Lanner's orchestra, and then gave concerts with a band he organized in the principal cities of Germany. His three sons have become known as composers of dance music. The eldest son, JOHANN, b. 1825, is music director at Vienna to the emperor of Austria. He organized a band which played with great succsss in all the large European cities. In 1872 he came to the United States to conduct an orchestra of 1000 performers in his own compositions at the Boston Peace Jubilee. He has composed, besides his well-known waltzes, many operettas, among others: Indigo (1871); Die Fledermaus (1874); and Cagliostro (1875); La Tsigane (1877); The Queen's Lace Handkerchief (1881); The Merry War (1881); A Night in Venice (1883); The Gypsy Baron (1885); Ritter Pasman (1892). The second son, JOSEF, 1827-70, b. Vienna, composed about 300 pieces of dance music.-EDUARD, the youngest son, is the leader of an orchestra in Vienna, and has composed about 200 pieces.

STRAW BAIL. See BAIL.

STRAWBERRY, Fragaria, a genus of plants of the natural order rosacea, suborder rosea, tribe potentillida, remarkable for the manner in which the receptacle increases and becomes succulent, so as to form what is popularly called the fruit; the proper fruit (botanically) being the small achenia which it bears upon its surface. The genus differs from potentilla (q.v.) chiefly in having the receptacle succulent. The calyx is 10-cleft, the segments alternately smaller; the petals are five; the style springs from near the base of the carpel. All the species are perennial herbaceous plants, throwing out runners to form new plants; and the leaves are generally on long stalks, with three leaflets, deeply toothed. One South American species has simple leaves. Only one species, the WOOD STRAWBERRY, (F. vesca), is truly a native of Britain. It is common in woods and thickets. Its fruit is small, but of delicious flavor. Another species, the HAUTBOIS STRAWBERRY (F. elatior), is not unfrequently to be seen in woods and hedges, but has probably escaped from gardens. It is really a native of North America. The many kinds cultivated in gardens are regarded as varieties of these species, and of the CAROLINA STRAWBERRY (F. Caroliniana), the PINE STRAWBERRY (Ê. grandiflora, or F. ananas), and the CHILI STRAWBERRY (F. Chilensis), American species, the leaves and fruit of which are larger than those of the wood strawberry. In no genus, however, are the species more uncertain to which the cultivated kinds are to be referred. Some of these are remarkable for the large size of the fruit. New varieties are contin ually coming into notice, and the utmost care is necessary to keep the larger and finer varieties from degenerating. The cultivation of the strawberry is most extensively carried on in Britain and in Belgium. New kinds are produced from seed; but planta tions of strawberries are generally formed of the young plants, which are abundantly produced by runners. The rows are from 18 in. to two ft. apart, according to the kind. The finest fruit is said to be produced when the plants are kept distinct from each other in the rows, but this is not generally done. Tiles are sometimes placed around the plants and under the fruit; and it is an old English practice to lay straw between the rows, to preserve the fruit from rotting on the wet ground, from which the name straw. berry has been supposed to be derived; although more probably it is from the wander ing habit of the plant, straw being a corruption of the Anglo-Saxon strae, from which we have the English verb stray. Strawberry beds require to be renewed after a few years. Strawberries are often forced in hot-houses, in order to produce the fruit at a very early season. The uses of the strawberry as a dessert fruit and for preserves a well-known. There is no more wholesome fruit.

The ALPINE STRAWBERRY (F. collina), a native of Switzerland and Germany, differs considerably from the other kinds in its taller stems and more erect manner of growth.

The fruit, which is either red or white, is not very large, but is produced in great abundance, and unlike other strawberries, parts from its calyx almost on being touched. The Alpine strawberry continues to produce fruit long after the other kinds.

The INDIAN STRAWBERRY (F. Indica), a native of the Himalaya, requires only a little protection in Britain from severe frost, and with this care grows luxuriantly and produces fruit in abundance. The flowers are yellow, not white, as in other strawberries, and are not produced upon common flower-stalks rising from the center of the plant as in the other species, but upon single-flowered stalks, which spring from the axils of the leaves upon the runners. The fruit is very beautiful, growing with its apex upward. It is not, however, of good quality.

STRAW-MANUFACTURES. The industrial applications of the straw of wheat are of great commercial importance, especially that of plaiting, which is one of the oldest arts practiced by mankind, many specimens having been found in the tombs of the ancient Egyptians, and mention being made of plaiting by Herodotus and other early writers. The earliest notice we have of its systematic use in Europe as an article of clothing is in the records of the reign of Mary, queen of Scots, who, we are told, observed that the peasants of Lorraine wore hats made of straw plait, and that this manufacture was beneficial to them, and she consequently conceived the idea of introducing it into Scotland, which was done about the year 1562, but without much success. Her son, James I., however, carried it into England, where it soon throve, and has been from that time a permanent branch of industry. It was first regularly established in Bedfordshire, which has ever since been the chief seat of the trade.

At first, the plait was what is called whole straw; that is, the straw was cut into suitable lengths without knots, and merely pressed flat during the operation of plaiting, and so it continued until the reign of George I., when it was in great demand for ladies' hats, and some plait was made of split straw. Since that time, this kind has been chiefly used, and a much improved method has been substituted for the clumsy one of using a common knife for splitting it. The instrument now employed is made of steel, and consists of a number of little square blades set in a circular manner around a stem, which at one end terminates in a point, and at the other is bent and fixed into a handle. The point being inserted into the hollow of the straw, is pressed forward, and cuts it into as many strips as there are blades in the cutting-tool; these vary in number according to the fineness of the work to be produced.

It is found that the fine straw-plaiting, which is now produced better in England than in any other country except Italy, can only be made from one or two varieties of wheat, that called the White Chittim being generally preferred, and next to it the Red Lammas, which only succeed as a straw-crop upon the light rich soils of the more southern of the midland counties. The harvesting is a matter of great anxiety, as the straw is liable to many injuries from wet and other causes. The value of this crop can be best understood by the fact that an acre will yield from 25 to 40 bushs. of wheat, and from 15 cwts. to a ton of straw, which, when in good condition, is worth $35 or $40. The crop is bought up by straw-factors, who employ people to draw the straw, and remove the ears, which are all cut off by hand for threshing. The straws are afterward cut into lengths and cleared of the outer sheath or leaf; they are then sorted into various thicknesses by an apparatus consisting of a series of sieves about eight inches in diameter; the boys who usually do this work hold a handful on end over the first sieve, which has the narrowest spaces, and the thinest straws only fall through it; they are next placed on the second. and so on to the last. As they fall through each successive sieve, they pass down through hollow shafts, through shoots of tin or sheet-zinc into boxes, from which they are removed and tied into bundles ready for the splitters, who next take them in hand and reduce them to strips of the sizes required. In Switzerland straw-plaiting schools exist even in the poorest parts of the subalpine districts, and their products command markets in all parts of the world. The higher instruction extends to the cultivation and acclimatization of various kinds of foreign grasses furnishing all qualities of straw.

Besides its value for plaiting, straw is now much used in the manufacture of paper (q.v.).

In America, it is recorded that from a very early period in the colonia times, the plaiting of straw and its manufacture into suitable goods for domestic use was a common home industry in many New England and other northern households. As these goods were necessarily crude and ungraceful, the wants of the wealthier classes were usually supplied by importation from abroad-principally from Italy. In the early part of this century, however, when the prolonged European wars cut off communication with Italy, more attention began to be paid to this branch of industry, and various manufactories were started which supplied a limited and local trade. But it was not until 1825-30 that the business grew to any real importance or covered any great extent of territory. About that time some of the more enterprising New York and Massachusetts houses sought to develop their facilities so as to reach those portions of the country where straw goods were little known, and the business soon assumed immense proportions. For many years goods were made largely from the straw raised and plaited in this country-the plaiting being done chiefly by females during the intervals of household work-but the cheapness and superiority of foreign braids, in