or their united effect, will be in proportion to their mean distance from the center. This mean distance in A is twice that in B; therefore, the resistance in A is 2 X 4, or 8 times the resistance in B. Generally, the strength of shafts to resist torsion is as the cubes of their diameters. The torsive strengths of shafts 1 in. diameter, and with weights acting at 1 ft. leverage, being found by experiment for different materials; the strength of shafts of other dimensions is found from these "constants" by multiplying by the cube of the diameter, and dividing by the length of the lever. It is evident that the torsive strength of a hollow shaft will be greater than that of a solid one of the same quantity of material, on the same principle that its transverse strength is greater. The rule used by Boultor and Watt for calculating the diameters of their wrought-. on shafts was as follows:

This is found to make the shafts rather too light; and the following variation gives safer practical results:

STREPSIP TERA (Gr. twisted-wings), an order of insects called RHIPIPTERA (Gr. fanwinged) by Latreille, but first established by Kirby. The first-known species were observed by Rossi, and referred by him to the order hymenoptera. The order strepsiptera consists of a small number of species, very singular in structure and habits, apparently forming a connecting link between coleoptera and hymenoptera. The species are all small, and in their larval state, live parasitically in the bodies of bees and wasps. Their natural history has been the subject of much attention since they were discovered; but much still remains obscure. The species form the two genera, stylops and xenos.

STRETCHING-COURSE, in masonry or brick-work, is a course in which the stones or bricks are placed with their longest sides along the face of the wall. The stones are called stretchers, as those placed at right angles to them with their end exposed are called headers.

STRETTO (Ital. bound), in music, a term which signifies that the movement to which it is prefixed is to be performed with rapidity gradually accelerating toward the close.The term stretto is also applied to the recurrence in fugue of the subject in one part before it has come to a close in another. See FUGUE.

STRIÆ, the fillets between the flutes of columns, pilasters, etc.

STRICKLAND, AGNES, an English authoress, the daughter of Thomas Strickland, esq., was b. at her father's seat, Roydon Hall, near Southwold, in Suffolk, in the year 1806. She was the third daughter of a family of six daughters and two sons, nearly all of whom have contributed something to the literature of our time. Her first composi tions were mostly in the poetical vein, and consisted of anonymous contributions to periodicals. About the year 1825, however, she published, in conjunction with her sister Susanna (afterward Mrs. Moodie), a volume of Patriotic Songs; which was followed, in 1826, by a little volume bearing her own name exclusively, and entitled Worcester Field, or the Cavalier; a Poem, in Four Cantos, with Historical Notes, which was favorably received by some of the reviews. Worcester Field was followed by The Seven Ages of Woman, and other Poems (Lond. 1827); and this by Demetrius, a Tale of Greece, in Three Cantos (Lond. 1833), written in the meter of Byron's Corsair. In 1836 she published a little volume entitled Floral Sketches, Fables, and other Poems; repub lished in 1861. With this the list of Miss Agnes Strickland's poetical works ends. Among her prose works are: The Rival Crusoes, published without date; The Pilgrims of Walsingham, or Tales of the Middle Ages, an Historical Romance (2 vols., 1835); Tales and Stories from History (1836); Alda, the British Captive (1841); Historical Tales of Illustrious British Children (1847; new ed., 1858); Historic Scenes and Poetic Fancies (1850); Old Friends and New Acquaintances (2 series, 1860-61). All these, however, are but of small import in comparison with her well-known work, Lives of the Queens of England from the Norman Conquest, with Anecdotes of their Courts, in 12 vols. (Lond. 1840-48; new ed., 8 vols., 1851-52). In this work, the materials for which she discovered by diligently ran. sacking among the treasures of the British Museum and other great public repositories of historic documents, Miss Strickland was largely assisted by her sister Elizabeth, an assistance which she gratefully acknowledges in her preface. It was dedicated to queen Victoria; and as each volume successively appeared, its picturesque style and anecdotical character made it a general favorite, especially among that class of readers whose object in reading history is rather amusement than philosophical instruction. At the same time it must be owned that in these Lives she has added materially to our stock of historical information. Miss Strickland's Lives of the Queens of England, concluding with the biography of Queen Anne, have been followed by the Lives of the Queens of Scotland, and English Princesses connected with the Regal Succession of Great Britain, in 8 vols. (Edin. and Lond. 1850-59); and these by her Lives of the Bachelor Kings of England (Lond. 1861), containing the lives of William Rufus, Edward V., and Edward VI. Miss

Strickland published a novel entitled How will it End? (1865); Lives of the Seven Bishops (1866). In 1871 she received a pension of £100. She died in July, 1874.

STRICKLAND, HUGH EDWIN, 1811-53; b. England; studied with Dr. Arnold at Laleham; graduate of Oxford, 1832; gave his attention to the special study of geology and ornithology. In 1850 he became reader in geology in the university of Oxford, succeeding Dr. Buckland, and retaining the post till his death. He was one of the founders of the Geological Society, and of the Ray Society, which on account of his representations undertook the publication of Agassiz's Bibliographia Zoologie et Geologia, 3 vols, of which he edited. He contributed to scientific periodicals, and was associated with Sir Roderick Q. Murchison in his Silurian System.

STRICT CONSTRUCTIONISTS. See PARTY NAMES.

STRICTURE is a term employed in surgery to denote an unnatural contraction, either congenital or acquired, of a mucous canal, such as the uretha, œsophagus, or intestine. When, however, the affected part is not mentioned, and a person is stated to suffer from stricture, it is always the urethral canal that is referred to. Contraction of this canal may be either permanent or transitory; the former is due to a thickening of the walls of the urethra, in consequence of organic deposit, and is hence termed organic stricture; while the latter may be due either to local inflammation or congestion, or to abnormal muscular action: the first of these varieties may be termed inflammatory or congestive stricture; and the second, spasmodic stricture. The last-named form seldom exists except as a complication of the other kinds of stricture. There are two principal causes of organic stricture-the first being inflammation of the canal, and the second injury by violence. Inflammation is by far the most common cause, and gonorrhoea is the com. mon agent by which it is excit 1. Not unfrequently, stimulating injections thrown into the urethra, with the view of checking the gonorrhoeal discharge, excite an inflammatory action, which gives rise to stricture. Fortunately, it is only in exceptional cases that a stricture results from inflammation of the urethra, the inflammation, in the great majority of cases, terminating by resolution, and leaving the canal as healthy as before the attack. It is when the complaint assumes a chronic character that it most commonly lays the foundation of stricture. Stricture from the second cause arises from such cases as falling across spars, scaffolding, ladders, etc., or on some sharp object which punctures the perineum, as from earthenware vessels which break under the sitter.

The earlier symptoms of stricture are a slight urethral discharge and pain in the canal, behind the seat of the stricture, at the time of micturition. The stream of urine does not pass in its ordinary form, but is flattened or twisted; and as the disease advances, it becomes smaller, and ultimately the fluid may only be discharged in drops. The straining efforts to discharge urine often induce tenesmus (q. v.).

As the case advances, the urine becomes alkaline and ropy, and deposits a precipitate when allowed to stand; and attacks of complete retention (q.v.) occur with increasing frequency. But these symptoms are not in themselves sufficient to establish the presence of stricture. It is necessary to examine the urethral canal with a catheter (q.v.) or bougie (q.v.), to ascertain whether an organic obstruction exists, whether one or more strictures are present (as many as eight have been recorded, although four are rare; and one is the most common number), and their caliber. The treatment of organic stricture is too purely surgical to be discussed in these pages: it is sufficient to state that its object is twofold, viz., first, to restore the natural caliber of the canal, so far as this can be safely effected; and, secondly, to maintain this patency, after it has been established.

Spasmodic stricture may occur from any of the following causes: The presence of organic stricture or of inflammation of the mucous membrane; from an acrid condition of the urine; from the administration of cantharides, turpentine, etc.; and from the voluntary retention of urine for too long a time. The treatment consists in the removal of the causes as far as possible, and the hot bath. The inhalation of chloroform sometimes gives immediate relief; and several cases are recorded in which, when the spasm occurred periodically, it was cured by quinine. Inflammatory or congestive stricture commonly arises when a recent purulent discharge from the urethra has been checked by external cold or wet. The patient complains of heat, fullness, and soreness in the perineum; the passage of the urine is extremely painful, the stream being small, and ceasing before the bladder empties. The treatment is much the same as that for reten tion of urine (q. v.).

STRI GAU, or STRIEGAU, a t. of Silesia, Prussia, situated on Strigau Water, 32 m. w.s. w. of Breslau. It has manufactures of woolens and linens. It is famous for the victory gained by Frederick the Great over the Austrians and Saxons in 1745. Pop. '95, 12,627.

STRIGI'DÆ, the family of nocturnal birds of prey, or owls (q.v.).

STRIKE, a term borrowed by geologists from the German streichen, to extend, and adopted with the technical meaning it has in that language. It is applied to the direc tion of the outcrop of a stratum-the line which it makes when it appears on the surface of the earth. This line is always at right angles to the dip of the bed. The angle of dip and the direction of strike are determined by a clinometer and compass. A perfectly horizontal stratum can have neither dip nor strike.

STRIKES. Beginning as early as the middle of the 14th c., the opposition of combined labor to the efforts of employers to regulate the price and hours of labor, has been prominent in economic history; though, indeed, the earliest incident recorded in such history, had a peculiar origin, the reverse of what we have just indicated. The terrible plague of 1348 which continued during eight years, destroyed, it is believed, nearly two-thirds of the human race then existing. In London, 50,000 bodies were buried in one grave-yard; in Venice the number of deaths is said to have been 100,000; in Lübeck 90,000; in Spain the disease raged three years, and carried off two-thirds of the people; in the east 20,000,000 perished in one year. One result of this protracted “dance of death" was a scarcity of labor so great that it became a question as to the possibility of providing for the living. Such a condition, not unnaturally, encouraged the craftsmen to increase the price of their services, with the increase of the demand and of the scarcity. In England this assertion of a claim which could not but be obnoxious, was met by par liamentary enactments, "statutes of labor," and other exercise of the power of the gov erning class. It was the first strike," and, as ever since, it was met by force. It was an attempt to take unfair advantage of disaster and death. Subsequent strikes for a rise in wages have been occasioned mostly by a preceding act of cutting them down. The introduction of machinery and the factory system into British labor, was the occasion of serious resistance on the part of skilled labor; as was the case also on the continent of Europe and in America. From this time strikes have been common, whenever laborers wished an increase of wages, or a lessening of the hours of labor. The organization of trades-unions made it possible to conduct these movements on a large and powerful scale; and in many instances-particularly in flush times, and when prices were high-they were successful. Not always conducted, however, with a due regard for existing economic conditions, they have frequently proved abortive for their purpose, and powerful only in creating added and permanent distress among the laboring classes. Little record has been kept of the strikes which have occurred in America, but we know that as early as 1830 they occurred in Boston to secure shorter hours of labor; the trades engaged being carpenters and masons. Strikes have occurred since in various manufacturing towns in Massachusetts about every year; sometimes for shorter hours sometimes for more pay. In some instances these were accompanied by rioting, and sometimes the militia were ordered out to suppress this. In 1834 several hundred laborers employed in building the Providence railroad, struck for higher wages, and became riotous. This was probably the first railroad strike. As a rule, all the early strikes were unsuccessful, though the continual effort after the "ten-hour" rule for daily labor was eventually successful. In Lowell, Lawrence, Fall River, and other cottonmanufacturing towns in Massachusetts, strikes have been frequent; many of them being accompanied by much bitterness and ill-feeling; and all resulting in serious pecuniary loss to all concerned. In all the large cities strikes have formed a prominent feature of the history of labor. Type-setters, stage-drivers, railroad-hands, shoe-makers, and nearly all trades and callings have at one time or another in the past half-century experienced these unfortunate aberrations. But the most important event of this nature, was the memorable railroad strike of 1877; when for two weeks, beginning July 14, 100,000 railroad men and 40,000 miners were "on strike" at once; 6,000 m. of railroad, covering several of the trunk lines, were in the hands of an infuriated mob; the state militia and the U. S. army were found necessary to put down the accompanying riotous conduct, murder, and incendiarism; and more than 2,000 freight cars in Pittsburg alone, with their contents, were destroyed, the destruction of railroad property being estimated at $10,000,000; while in Chicago, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Albany, and other cities, the amount of loss has never been fully estimated. See COMBINATION, LABOR, TRADES UNIONS.

STRING-COURSE, a thin projecting course of stone or brickwork in a wall, generally ornamented with a molding, and made to go around windows or other openings in the wall.

STRINGENDO, a term used in music to denote a gradual acceleration in the time.

STRINGHALT is a peculiar catching up of the horse's limbs, usually of one or both hind limbs. It is most noticeable when the animal is first brought out of the stable, when he is excited, or made to turn suddenly round; it is a variety of chorea or St. Vitus's dance. Although a serious eye-sore, it does not interfere with usefulness, and is quite incurable.

STRINGHAM, SILAS HORTON, 1798-1876; b. N. Y.; entered the navy as midshipman, 1809; was in several actions in the President and Spark, under Decatur and Rodgers; and in 1819-21 as lieut. in command of the Cyane and the Hornet conveyed the first settlers to Liberia and captured many slavers. He was promoted to a captaincy in 1841, and participated in the bombardment of Vera Cruz. On the breaking out of the civil war he was made flag-officer of the Atlantic blockading squadron, and the Minnesota was his flag-ship. He commanded the naval force which in connection with the land forces of Gen. Butler, captured Forts Hatteras and Clark. In 1862 he was retired as rear-admiral. In 1871 he became port-admiral of New York, and resided in Brooklyn at the time of his death.

STRO BILA. See TAPE WORM.

Strongylus.

STROMBIDÆ, a family of gasteropodous mollusks, of the order pectinibranchiata, nearly allied to buccinida (whelks, etc.) and muricida. The shell has a canal, the external lip of which, as it attains maturity, becomes more or less dilated, and is marked with a sinus, whence the head issues when the animal comes out. The foot is narrow and small, but is employed in active leaping movements, during which the shell oscillates from side to side. The species are numerous, and are mostly inhabitants of tropical seas. Some of them are araong the largest of mollusks. Strombus gigas is the largest known univalve. It is found in the West Indies, on reefs in shallow water, and is fished both for the table and on account of the shell. Great numbers of the shells are imported into Britain; 300,000 have been brought to Liverpool in a year. They are sometimes called fountain-shell, from their occasional use as a garden ornament. Their chief use, however, is by cameo-makers, by whom they are valued for their solid and delicately tinted substance. A shell sometimes weighs four or five pounds. Pearls of a delicate pink color are sometimes found in this shell. The strombi are sometimes called wingshells, from the dilated margin of the lip.

tants.

STROM BOLI, one of the group of the Lipari islands (q. v.), the most north-easterly of the group, is about 12 m. in circumference, circular in shape, and contains 2,000 inhabiIt is wholly of volcanic formation, and rises to the height of 3,038 ft. above sealevel. On its western side is a volcano of considerable activity. Sulphur and pumicestone are gathered in large quantities, and among the chief agricultural products are cotton, wine, and excellent fruits.

STROM NESS. See ORKNEY ISLANDS.

STRONG, GEORGE C., 1832-63; b. Vt.; graduated at West Point, 1857, and held the position of 1st capt. of cadets there for 3 years. In 1861 he was attached to the staff of Gen. McDowell and acted as his aide at the battle of Bull Run. He afterward served with McClellan and Butler, and distinguished himself at Biloxi, Tangipahoa river, and in the assault on Fort Wagner, where he was fatally wounded. He rose to the rank of capt. of ordnance and brig.-gen. of vols. Gen. Strong was the author of Cadet Life at West Point (Boston, 1862).

STRONG, JAMES, S.T.D., b. New York, 1822; graduated at Wesleyan university, Middletown, Conn., 1844; settled at Flushing, L. I., and taught Hebrew and Greek to private pupils; received, though a layman, the degree of s.T.D. from Wesleyan university, 1856; professor of biblical literature and acting president of Troy university, 1858-61; professor of exegetical theology in Drew theological seminary, Madison, N. J., 1868; traveled in the east, 1874. In 1853 he became associated with the Rev. Dr. John McClintock in the preparation of the Cyclopædia of Biblical, Theological, and Ecclesiastical Literature, he having the department of biblical literature. After the death of Dr. McClintock he became the chief editor. He has published also Harmony and Exposition of the Gospels; Greek Harmony of the Gospels; Manuals of Greek and Hebrew Grammar; Outlines of Theology; Appeal to Sunday-school Efforts; also, articles in the Methodist Quarterly Review and Christian Advocate and Journal. He prepared the translation of the Book of Daniel for Lange's commentary, and was a member of the AngloAmerican committee on the revision of the Bible. He died in 1894.

STRONG, JAMES H., b. Canandaigua, N. Y., 1814; son of Judge Elisha B.; entered the navy as midshipman, 1829; served in the Mexican war; commander, 1861; capt., 1865. He commanded the steamer Mohawk, 1861; the Flag, 1862; and the steam sloop Monongahela, 1863-65. In 1863 he transported a division of the secret expedition of Gen. Banks's army to Brazos, and aided the troops in taking the battery at Arkansas pass. He was in command of the Monongahela during her engagement with the ram Tennessee in the battle of Mobile Bay; commodore, 1870; rear admiral, 1873. D. 1882.

STRONG, NATHAN, D.D., 1748-1816; b. Conn.; graduated at Yale college, 1769; tutor there, 1772; ordained pastor of First Church (Congregational), Hartford, 1774, where he remained till his death; was a chaplain in the army in the revolutionary war. He published The Doctrine of Eternal Misery Consistent with the Infinite Benevolence of God; Sermons, 2 vols; The Hartford Selection of Hymns. He originated and edited the Connecticut Magazine, and was principal founder of the Connecticut missionary society. He held a high rank for learning and usefulness, and was noted for shrewdness and wit.

STRONG, THEODORE, LL.D., 1790-1869; b. Mass.; graduated at Yale in 1812, taking the mathematical prize; tutor in mathematics at Hamilton college, 1812-16; professor of mathematics at Hamilton, 1816-27. A new geometrical demonstration by him of the values of sines and co-sines of the sum and difference of two arcs, and a solution of a difficult problem in diophantine analysis, were published in the American Journal of Science in 1818. Other important papers appeared in subsequent numbere After having mastered the Principia of Newton and the subjects added by its com mentators, he addressed himself to the study of the more modern analysis of La Grange and Laplace. This required a knowledge of the French language which he did not possess, but he soon taught himself sufficient to be able to read mathematical works in French as well as in English or Latin. In 1827, upon a second invitation from Rutgers

Strongylus.

college, N. J., he became professor of mathematics and natural philosophy in that institution, and removed to New Brunswick, where he remained during the rest of his life, performing the duties of his chair till 1862. Prof. Strong made many important contributions to mathematical science, among which may be mentioned the solution of what is known as the irreducible case of cubic equations of Cardan, a result which had long been sought in vain. He also devised a method for the application of the binomial theorem for the extraction of the roots of whole numbers. His two principal systematic works are: A Treatise on Elementary and Higher Algebra (1859); and A Treatise on the Differential and Integral Calculus (1869). Both of these treatises contain much original work. The work on Calculus, written in his 78th year, and without the aid of notes or books, has many original features, and is divested of technicalities and formulas which have become the accretions of time. It contains a solution, by a new and beautiful method, of the problem, "To find the area bounded by the ordinate of a plane curve drawn through the origin of the co-ordinates by any other ordinate and the intercepted parts of the axis and the curve, supposing the ordinates to be constantly positive between the preceding limits." Prof. Strong was a contributor to various mathematical and scientific journals for the greater part of his life. To the American Journal of Science he contributed 22 papers between 1818 and 1845. To the Mathematical Diary, published at New York and edited at first by Dr. Robert Adrian and afterward by James Ryan, he also contributed. To the Mathematical Miscellany, edited by Mr. Charles Gill at Flushing, L. I., he contributed 22 papers; to the Cambridge Miscellany, edited by Profs. Peirce and Lovering, seven papers; and to the Mathematical Monthly, edited by I. D. Runkle, two papers. He also communicated five different papers to the National academy of sciences from 1864 to 1867 inclusive. Among the papers contributed to the American Journal of Science are a systematic discussion of the laws regulating the action of a central force, the path of the curve pro duced thereby, and the mutual action of a system of bodies; a discussion of the parallelogram of forces, their composition and resolution, and the statical equilibrium. In volume xvi. of the journal, on p. 286, there is a deduction of the differential equation which constitutes the fundamental formula for expressing the angular velocity of a planet in terms of its radius vector, and thence, the force being given, the law of the curve of revolution, and of all curves produced by a central force, corresponding to the result given by Laplace in the first part of his second book of the Mechanique Céleste, and to that of Newton in the 41st proposition, section viii., of the Principia. He was one of the original members of the National Academy of Science, and was also a member of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences at New Haven, of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at Boston, and of the American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia.

STRONG, WILLIAM, LL.D., b. Conn., 1808; graduated at Yale college, 1828. He studied law, and after his admission to the bar, 1832, began practice in Reading, Penn. In 1849 he was elected to congress and served two terms, after which he resumed practice. In 1855 he was elected a judge of the Penn. supreme court, but resigned in 1868. After two years of practice in the higher branches of the profession, he was appointed associate justice of the U. S. supreme court by Pres. Grant, retiring in 1880. He died at Lake Minnewaska, N. Y., Aug. 19, 1895.

STRONG, WILLIAM L., mayor of New York, born in Richland co., Ohio, March 22, 1827. At the age of sixteen he entered a dry-goods house in Wooster, Ohio, and in 1853 came to New York City, entering the employment of L. C. Wilson and Co. The following year he became connected with Farmham, Dale and Co., which after numerous changes in the firm dissolved partnership, in Dec., 1869, and was succeeded by W. L. Strong and Co. Mr. Strong was for many years a director of the Central National Bank and its president since 1887; a director of the Erie Railway Co., the N. Y. Life Insurance Co., the Mercantile Trust Co. and other corporations. He is a member of the Union League Club, president of the Ohio society and member of the Downtown, Merchants', Colonial, Republican and other clubs. On Nov. 6, 1894, he was elected mayor of New York on a fusion ticket, defeating the Tammany nominee by a large majority. His three years' term of office was marked by its strictly non-partisan character.

STRONGYL'IDE, a family of nematode worms, possessing the following common characters: The body is round, and sometimes very much elongated, and almost threadlike. The mouth is round, oval, or triangular, and situated at the extreme anterior end of the body. The tail of the male is commonly furnished with a bursa, usually emitting two spicules. The whole family is parasitic, and contains a number of genera. Some of the strongylidæ are parasitic in man, some in mammals, birds, reptiles, etc.

STRONGYLUS (from the similar Greek word signifying round) is the term applied to a genus of the family strongylidæ (q.v.) of nematode parasitic worms. The only true strongylus infesting man is the S. bronchialis of Cobbold, previously known as filaria hominis bronchialis, hamularia compressa, etc. The male usually measures rather more than half an inch, while the female is upward of an inch in length. For the general and specific characters of this rare entozoon, the reader is referred to Cobbold's Entozoa. p. 357. The worm was originally discovered by Treutter in 1790, who found several