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hope of extraordinary reward will deal very diligently, after outward appearance, in this their function and calling. Herein nevertheless are many of them blameworthy, in that they do not only deceive the beast oftentimes of his allowance by sundry means, except their owners look well to them; but also make such packs with slipper merchants which hunt after prey (for what place is sure from evil and wicked persons?) that many an honest man is spoiled of his goods as he travelleth to and fro, in which feat also the counsel of the tapsters or drawers of drink, and chamberlains is not seldom behind or wanting. Certes I believe that not a chapman or traveller in England is robbed by the way without the knowledge of some of them; for when he cometh into the inn, and alighteth from his horse, the hostler forthwith is very busy to take down his budget or capcase in the yard from his saddle-bow, which he peiseth slyly in his hand to feel the weight thereof: or if he miss of this pitch, when the guest hath taken up his chamber, the chamberlain that looketh to the making of the beds will be sure to remove it from the place where the owner hath set it, as if it were to set it more conveniently somewhere else, whereby he getteth an inkling whether it be money or other sort wares, and thereof giveth warning to such odd guests as haunt the house and are of his confederacy, to the utter undoing of many an honest yeoman as he journeyeth by the way. The tapster in like sort for his part doth mark his behaviour, and what plenty of money he draweth when he payeth the shot, to the like end so that it shall be an hard matter to escape all their subtle practices. Some think it a gay matter to commit their budgets at their coming to the goodman of the house but thereby they oft bewray themselves. For albeit their money be safe for the time that it is in his hands (for you shall not hear that a man is robbed in his inn) yet after their departure the host can make no warrantise of the same, sith his protection extendeth no further than the gate of his own house: and there cannot be a surer token unto such as pry and watch for those booties, than to see any guest deliver his capcase in such

manner.

In all our inns we have plenty of ale, beer and sundry kinds of wine, and such is the capacity of some of them that they are able to lodge two hundred or three hundred persons and their

horses at ease, and thereto with a very short warning make such provision for their diet, as to him that is unacquainted withal may seem to be incredible. Howbeit of all in England there are no worse inns than in London, and yet many are there far better than the best that I have heard of in any foreign. country, if all circumstances be duly considered...And it is a world to see how each owner of them contendeth with other for goodness of entertainment of their guests, as about fineness and change of linen, furniture of bedding, beauty of rooms, service at the table, costliness of plate, strength of drink, variety of wines, or well using of horses. Finally there is not so much omitted among them as the gorgeousness of their very signs at their doors, wherein some do consume thirty or forty pounds, a mere vanity in mine opinion; but so vain will they needs be, and that not only to give some outward token of the inn-keeper's wealth, but also to procure good guests to the frequenting of their houses in hope there to be well used.

WILLIAM HARRISON, Description of England 1587 (2nd ed.)

Highwaymen on Gadshill

First Traveller. Come, neighbour; the boy shall lead our horses down the hill; we'll walk afoot awhile, and ease our legs.

Thieves. Stand!

Travellers. Jesu bless us !

Falstaff. Strike; down with them; cut the villains' throats: ah! whoreson caterpillars! bacon-fed knaves! they hate us youth: down with fleece them. 1 Henry IV., II. ii. 86-95

them;

Afterwards his Highness rode back again [from Rochester] to Gravesend, the night being as dark as pitch and the wind high and boisterous; he slept there that night. On the road, however, an Englishman, with a drawn sword in his hand, came upon us unawares and ran after us as fast as he could; perhaps he expected to find other persons, for it is very probable that he had an ambush, as that particular part of the road is not the most safe.

Visit of Frederick, Duke of Würtemberg, 1592 [Rye]

§2. First impressions of London

But now behold,

In the quick forge and working-house of thought,
How London doth pour out her citizens.

Henry V., v. chor. 22-24

A foreigner's opinion

London is a large, excellent and mighty city of business, and the most important in the whole kingdom; most of the inhabitants are employed in buying and selling merchandize, and trading in almost every corner of the world, since the river is most useful and convenient for this purpose, considering that ships from France, the Netherlands, Sweden, Denmark, Hamburg and other kingdoms, come almost up to the city, to which they convey goods and receive and take away others in exchange.

It is a very populous city, so that one can scarcely pass along the streets, on account of the throng.

The inhabitants are magnificently apparelled, and are extremely proud and overbearing; and because the greater part, especially the tradespeople, seldom go into other countries, but always remain in their houses in the city attending to their business, they care little for foreigners, but scoff and laugh at them; and moreover one dare not oppose them, else the streetboys and apprentices collect together in immense crowds and strike to the right and left unmercifully without regard to person; and because they are the strongest, one is obliged to put up with the insult as well as the injury.

The women have much more liberty than perhaps in any other place; they also know well how to make use of it, for they go dressed out in exceedingly fine clothes, and give all their attention to their ruffs and stuffs, to such a degree indeed, that, as I am informed, many a one does not hesitate to wear velvet in the streets, which is common with them, whilst at home perhaps they have not a piece of dry bread. All the English women are accustomed to wear hats upon their heads, and gowns cut after the old German fashion-for indeed their descent is from the Saxons.

Visit of Frederick, Duke of Würtemberg, 1592 [Rye]

The Buildings

Now at London the houses of the citizens (especially in the chief streets) are very narrow in the front towards the street, but are built five or six roofs high, commonly of timber and clay with plaster, and are very neat and commodious within and the building of citizens' houses in other cities is not much unlike this. But withal understand, that in London many stately palaces, built by noblemen upon the river Thames, do make a very great shew to them that pass by water; and that there be many more like palaces, also built towards land, but scattered and great part of them in back lanes and streets, which if they were joined to the first in good order, as other cities are built uniformly, they would make not only fair streets, but even a beautiful city, to which few might justly be preferred for the magnificence of the building. Besides that, the aldermen's and chief citizens' houses, howsoever they are stately for building, yet being built all inward, that the whole room towards the streets may be reserved for shops of tradesmen, make no shew outwardly, so as in truth all the magnificence of London building is hidden from the view of strangers at the first sight, till they have more particular view thereof by long abode there, and then they will prefer the buildings of this famous city to many that appear more stately at the first sight. Great part of the towns and villages are built like the citizens' houses in London, save that they are not so many stories high nor so narrow in the front towards the street. Others of them are built in like sort of unpolished small stones, and some of the villages in Lincolnshire and some other countries are of mere clay, and covered with thatch; yet even these houses are more commodious within for cleanliness, lodging and diet, than any stranger would think them to be. Most of the houses in cities and towns have cellars under them, where for coolness they lay beer and wine. Gentlemen's houses for the most part are built like those in the cities, but very many of gentlemen's and noblemen's palaces, as well near London as in other countries, are stately built of brick and freestone, whereof many yield not in magnificence to like buildings of other kingdoms, as Homby, built by Sir Christopher Hatton; Tybals lately belonging to the Earl of Salisbury, seated near London; and the Earl of Exeter his house near Stamford: by which palaces lying near the

highway a stranger may judge of many other like stately buildings in other parts. The King's palaces are of such magnificent building, so curious art, and such pleasure and beauty for gardens and fountains, and are so many in number, as England need not envy any other kingdom therein. Among them being many a stranger may see near London: the King's palaces of Hampton Court, of Richmond, of Greenwich, of Nonsuch, of Oatlands, of Sheen, of Windsor, and in London the palace of Whitehall.

FYNES MORYSON, Itinerary 1617

The Thames

This is a long, broad, slippery fellow; rest he affects not, for he is always in motion: he seems something like a carrier, for he is still either going or coming, and once in six or eight hours, salutes the sea his mother and then brings tidings from her. He follows the disposition of the wind, if that be rough, so is the water; if that calm, so is this: and he loves it, because when the wind is at highest, then the water will best show her strength and anger: it is altogether unsteady, for it commonly is sliding away. Man's unconstant state, and uncertain frail condition is truly resembled by this, always either ebbing or flowing, being in a trice high and low. He will not be a martyr, for he will turn but never burn. Resolution is absolutely his guide and counsellor, for he will run his course. He cannot be said to be a well or spring without water, for he is puteus inexhaustus.

Merchandise he likes and loves; and therefore sends forth ships of traffic to most parts of the earth: his subjects and inhabitants live by oppression like hard landlords at land, the greater rule, and many times devour the less: the city is wondrously beholden to it, for she is furnished with almost all necessaries by it. He is wondrously crossed, he is the maintainer of a great company of watermen. He is a great labourer, for he works as much in the night as the day. He is led by an unconstant guide, the moon: he is clean contrary to Smithfield, because that is all for flesh, but this for fish: his inhabitants are different from those upon land, for they are most without legs: fishermen seem to offer him much wrong, for they rob him of many of his subjects: he is seldom without company, but in

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