"Great Commanders Series"; and G. W. Greene, The Life of Nathanael Greene (3 vols., New York, 1867-71).

GREENE, NATHANIEL (1797-1877). An American journalist, brother of Charles Gordon Greene. He was born in Boscawen, N. H., became an apprentice in the office of the New Hampshire Putriot in 1809, and in 1812 edited the Concord Gazette. After conducting several other local papers he founded in 1821 the Boston Statesman, a prominent Democratic organ. He was for fifteen years postmaster of Boston, and published several translations from the Italian, German, and French.

GREENE, ROBERT (c.1560-92). An English poet and dramatist, born at Norwich. He was placed at Saint John's College, Cambridge, where he graduated B.A. in 1578. He then traveled in Spain and Italy. On his return he reëntered the university, and took the degree of M.A. at Clare Hall in 1583. He was also incorporated at Oxford in 1588. Soon after leaving Cambridge he proceeded to London, where he supported himself by his pen. He died of a debauch September 3, 1592. As a dramatist, Greene was one of the precursors of Shakespeare. Of his five plays, the best known is The Famous History of Friar Bacon (performed in 1592, and undoubtedly earlier). In this play a story of necromancy is fused with a tender idyl. The romance Pandosto (1588) contributed incidents to Shakespeare's Winter's Tale. Menaphon (1589), containing much beautiful verse, is one of the best of the Elizabethan romances. Greene wrote many pamphlets, of which A Groatsworth of Wit Bought with a Million of Repentance (published just after his death, 1592) was immensely popular for fifty years. It contains the first undoubted allusion to Shakespeare after he came to London. Though Greene's life was dissipated. his writings are singularly pure. Consult: Complete Works, edited by Grosart for the Huth Library (15 vols., London, 1881-86); and Plays and Poems, edited by Collins (New York, 1902).

An

GREENE, SAMUEL DANA (1840-84). American naval officer, born in Cumberland. Md.

In 1859 he graduated at the United States Naval Academy as a midshipman, and two years later became a lieutenant. During the battle between the Monitor and the Merrimac, March 9. 1862, he had charge of the Monitor's guns, and commanded the Union vessel after the disabling of Lieutenant Worden (q.v.). He served through out the war on various vessels; was assistant professor of mathematics at the Naval Academy from 1866 to 1868, and of astronomy from 1871 to 1875; was promoted to be commander in 1872; and acted as assistant superintendent of

the institution from 1878 to 1882.

GREENE, WILLIAM BATCHELDER (1819-78). An American author son of Nathaniel Greene (1797-1877). He was born in Haverhill. Mass., studied at West Point, and served in the Florida War. He was connected with the Brook Farm movement; graduated at the Harvard Divinity School in 1845. and became a Unitarian clergy man. In the Civil War he was colonel, and then brigadier-general of volunteers, but resigned in 1862. Among his works are: The Sovereignty of the People (1863): Transcendentalism (1870); Theory of the Calculus (1870); Socialistic,

Communistic, Mutualistic, and Financial Fragments (1875).

GREEN EARTH. A name frequently applied to the mineral glauconite (q.v.). The name is also applied to pulverulent varieties of the minerals chrysocolla and malachite, especially when they are used in their natural condition as pigments. Another name for these earths is mountain green.

GREEN EBONY. The wood of Jacaranda ovalifolia, a tree of the natural order Bignoniacea, which is exported in considerable quantity from South America. It yields olive-green, brown, and yellow colors in dyeing, but is also employed to some extent by turners and carpenters. The wood is hard, and of an olive-green color. The tree has showy, panicled flowers.

GREEN FIELD. A city and the county-seat of Hancock County, Ind., 21 miles east of Indianapolis; on the Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Chicago and Saint Louis Railroad (Map: Indiana, D 3). It has a public library and a fine high-school building. The city is surrounded by a farming district, and manufactures window-glass, fruitjars, bottles, paper, gas-engines, foundry products, and bricks. Greenfield, incorporated as a city in 1876, is governed under the original charter, which provides for a mayor, elected every four years, and a unicameral council. The city owns and operates its water-works and electriclight plant. Greenfield is the birthplace of James Whitcomb Riley. Population, in 1890, 3100; in 1900, 4489.

GREENFIELD. A town and the county-seat of Adair County, Iowa, 45 miles west by south of Des Moines; on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad (Map: Iowa, C 3). It is the commercial centre for a fertile agricultural and stock-raising region. Population, in 1890, 1048; in 1900, 1300.

GREENFIELD.

A town and the county-seat of Franklin County, Mass., 56 miles west of Fitchburg; on the Connecticut River, and at the junction of two divisions of the Boston and Maine Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, B 2). It includes North Parish and Factory villages; and is principally engaged in the manufacture of cutlery, machinists' tools, machinery, shoes, silverware, agricultural implements, woodenware, paper boxes, bricks, and children's carriages. The town has a Soldiers' Monument, the Franklin County Hospital, and two public li braries. The government is administered by annual town meetings. Greenfield was settled in 1686, but remained a part of Deerfield until 1753, when it was incorporated as a town. During Shays's Rebellion a body of insurrectionary troops was quartered here. Population, in 1890, 5252; in 1900, 7927. Consult Holland, History of Western Massachusetts (Springfield, 1855).

Its

GREENFINCH, or GREEN LINNET. (1) A familiar European finch (Ligurinus chloris), common in Great Britain. It is of a prevailing green tint, mingled with gray and brown. song is not very sweet, but in confinement it readily imitates the songs of other birds, and in consequence is a favorite cage-bird. (2) In the Rio Grande Valley. the name 'greenfinch' is given to a totally different bird (Embernagra rufovirgata), allied to the chewink (q.v.). This

GREEN FROG, or SPRING FROG. One of the most familiar and widespread of North American frogs (Rana clamata), occurring in all kinds of waters throughout the Eastern United States and Canada. The male is about three inches long, the female half an inch longer. In color it is brilliant green on the head and shoulders, above, passing into brownish olive posteriorly; below, white, the throat citron-yellow; sides and thighs blotched or barred. The eardrum of the male is very large, one-fourth greater than the large eye; in the female it is smaller. This frog is aquatic, and does not gather in large companies. Its only notes are an occasional 'chug,' and a sharp cry, uttered as it leaps into the water. It can make very long leaps, and is a rapid and skillful swimmer.

GREEN'HALGE, FREDERICK THOMAS (184296). An American politician, born in Clitheroe, England. He was early brought to America by his parents, studied for about three years at Harvard, and in 1863 went to Newbern, N. C., where he entered the commissary department of the Federal Army, but soon afterwards contracted fever, and returned north. He studied law, and was. admitted to the bar in 1865. After he had occupied a number of minor political offices, he was elected Mayor of Lowell in 1880, and again in 1881. In 1888 he was sent as a Republican to Congress, and from 1894 until his death was Governor of Massachusetts. Consult: Nesmith, The Life and Works of Thomas Frederick Greenhalge (Boston, 1897); and a sketch in Lodge, A Fighting Frigate and Other Essays and Addresses (New York, 1902).

GREENHAT, Sir HUMPHREY. The nom-deplume adopted by Sir Ambrose Crowley in the seventy-third number of the Tatler.

GREENHEART, or BEBEERU (Nectandra Rodi). A valuable timber-tree of the natural order Lauraceæ, a native of Guiana, which also yields a medicinal bark. The timber is commonly called greenheart; the bark is better known as bebeeru (otherwise beebeery, bibiru, bibiri, etc., and sipiri or sipeira); and the alkaloid to which it chiefly owes its properties is called beberine. This alkaloid, the formula of which is CN2O may be obtained from the bark in the form of brown scales that are sparingly soluble in water and in alcohol, and have a strong, bitter taste.

But although its chemical formula is accepted, it is probably not a single compound, but a mixture. The tree grows chiefly in British Guiana, and in the greatest perfection on the low hills immediately behind the alluvial lands; it rises with an erect, slightly tapering trunk to a height of 40 or 50 feet without a branch, attaining a height of 80 or 90 feet in all and a diameter of 3, or even 4, feet. The leaves are thick, oblongelliptical, and shining; the flowers, yellowishwhite, in axillary clusters; the fruit, which is about the size of a small apple, contains a single seed, about as large as a walnut. The fruit is intensely bitter, but contains a form of starch

The wood is exused as food by the natives. tremely strong and hard, and is exported to be used chiefly by turners for the same purposes as lignum vitæ, like which it sinks in water. It is also remarkable for its durability, for being almost exempt from the attacks of the white ants on land and of the teredo in water, and for the high polish it will take. It is used in Guiana for ship-building, and for all the most important purposes for which timber is required. The bark is hard, heavy, and brittle, has a grayishbrown epidermis, and is of a bright cinnamon color within. It has a very bitter, somewhat astringent taste. Its tonic and febrifugal properties resemble those of cinchona bark, although less reliable as an anti-periodic. The bark, as well as its alkaloid, is seldom used in medicine. A second alkaloid, nectandrine, found in the bark, has somewhat similar properties. South America produces a number of species of Nectandra. Nectandra puchury major and minor yield the seeds called pitchurim beans, which are astringent, are regarded as febrifugal, and are prescribed in dysentery, diarrhoea, etc., and the oil of which is used as a substitute for chocolate.

GREENHOUSE. A generic name given to glass buildings in which exotic and other tender plants, or plants out of their season, are grown. It embraces such structures as forcing houses, conservatories, hothouses, stove houses, orchard houses, graperies, bark stove houses, warm houses, etc. In its original sense, a greenhouse was a place in which plants were kept alive or green, but not expected to grow, and in this sense it is similar in meaning to conservatory. According as the temperature is raised above this point the structure becomes a hothouse or forcing house. The roofs, and generally the sides and ends of such plant-houses, are made of glass supported by wooden or metal sash-bars or rafters. The glass, besides making the house light, prevents the escape of much of the heat derived from the sun. When heat from this source is not suffi cient for the purpose of the house, artificial heat is supplied. In the simpler and smaller structures this is furnished by fermenting horse manure, tanbark, or other organic material. Stove houses, or dry stoves, formerly heated by flues which extended from end to end of the house, are used for growing the more tender plants. recent times the better houses are heated by hot water or steam, conducted through iron pipes. Modern greenhouses are characterized by great simplicity of construction; the framework is usu ally of wood or iron and wood, and very light considering its strength, and the glass of large

dimensions.

In

GREENHOUSE PLANTS. Plants common

ly cultivated under glass for decorative purposes, either for their attractive foliage or their flowers or both. With few exceptions the species are natives of the tropics and the warmer parts of the temperate zone. There are many thousands of species raised in American and foreign conservatories, among the most popular being those figured upon the accompanying plate, and described under their respective titles.

GREEN/HOW, ROBERT (1800-54). An American physician and historian, born in Richmond, Va. He was educated at William and Mary College, and afterwards in New York. He lectured upon historical subjects, was an apt linguist, and

published a History of Tripoli (1835), but his chief work was a History of Oregon and California (1846).

GREEN ISLAND. A village in Albany County, N. Y., situated on an island in the Hudson River, connected by bridges with Troy and Watervliet (Map: New York, G 3). It has shops of the Delaware and Hudson Canal Company's Railroad, railroad signal works, and important manufactures of knit goods, iron, machinery, lumber, stoves, etc. The village owns and operates its electric-light plant. Population, in 1890, 4463; in 1900, 4770.

GREENLAND. The largest island in the world after the island-continent Australia. Its area is about 512,000 square miles. The island is 1500 miles in length and, at its broadest part, 690 miles in width. In the extreme south it barely extends below the parallel 60° N.; the north coast has not been entirely outlined, but Peary discovered that the most northern point of the islands that front this coast of Greenland is in 83° 39', the cairn he built there standing on the most northern known land. Forming the extreme eastern portion of the American Arctic area, Greenland extends north and south between the Arctic and the Atlantic oceans. On the east it fronts the Arctic Ocean, and on the west it is separated from the American Arctic archipelago by the broad areas of Davis Strait and Baffin Bay, and farther north by the narrow waterways of Smith Sound, Kane Basin, and Kennedy and Robeson Channels. The outlines of Greenland could not satisfactorily be indicated till the surveys (1892-1900) of Peary on the northeast and north coasts, and of Nathorst and others on the east coast, had been completed. The coasts still unknown (1903) include the southern part of Melville Bay and portions of the northeast coast as far south as Cape Bismarck; but these unvisited shore-lines are too short materially to change the shape and size of the island as it now appears on the maps.

All the coasts are bordered by hundreds of islands, most of them small, and are penetrated by deep and narrow fiords, many of them choked with glaciers descending to the sea from the inland ice. A large part of the west coast, particularly in the south, has a belt of low shore lands, free from permanent ice and snow, about 100 miles in width in the district of Holstenborg, and 60 miles wide in the district of Godthaab; elsewhere on the west coast the lowland is much narrower. The east shore has the same phe nomena of deeply dissected coasts and a low shore belt, which, however, is only 6 to 20 miles in width. All the inhabitants live on these lowlands near the sea. On many parts of the coasts there is no lowland, but lofty mountains descend sheer to the sea. The characteristic features of Greenland are the deep fiords, the lofty mountains, grand and sombre, bordering the sea or separated from it by the low belt, and the great cap of the inland ice and its attendant phenomena of innumerable glaciers. The mountains terminate the Greenland plateau and the precipitous face they show to the sea is from 1500 to 3000 feet in height. Many mountains rise to 5000 or 8000 feet, and Petermann Peak on the east coast to 11,000 feet. The whole interior of the land, or more than three-fifths of the entire surface, is covered with an unbroken ice sheet, be

lieved to be from 2000 feet to a mile in thickness, comparatively level, its monotony relieved only near its outer edges by mountains (nunataks) rising above the ice surface. It was once supposed that the ice cap might surround depressions of ice-free land, but the journeys of Peary, who crossed the ice cap four times, and of NanDrygalski, of Germany, who has made a careful sen, who crossed it once, dispelled this idea. Dr. investigation both of the inland ice and of the glaciers of the west coast mountain tracts, believes that the great ice cap had its origin in the mountains of the interior and coastal regions, descending from them at first in the form of separate glaciers which gradually coalesced and so filled the valleys and smothered height after height till the whole land disappeared. Α constant outflow of ice takes place, the ice sheet moving from the interior where it is thickest to the marginal area where it is thinnest. It is believed that the land surface of the interior is covered with mountains, as on the coast, but they are buried under the ice cap. The highest point reached by Peary on the ice cap was more than 8000 feet above sea-level.

The glaciers move down the fiords to discharge at the sea-edge as icebergs. Many of them, however, never reach the sea, their rate of movement being so slow that the summer melting keeps their fronts miles inland. The glacial movement seaward varies greatly along different parts of the coasts. It has been observed chiefly in Southwest Greenland, where the rate of movement, as measured among a considerable number of glaciers, ranges from 2 feet an hour to 99 feet a day at the large glacier near Upernivik. The east coast glaciers are usually much smaller than those of the southwest coast, but Peary has observed in Inglefield Gulf, Northwest Greenland, glaciers that compare in volume with the mighty ice rivers of the southwest, which is the birthplace of most of the icebergs that cross the track of Atlantic steamers during the summer months.

The climate is very cold, the mean annual isotherm of freezing temperature crossing the island near its southern end. This fact does not prevent the prevalence of warmth suitable for vegetation during the long summer day, in the interior of the fiords and in sheltered places exposed to the sun, nearly or quite to the northern end of the island. Thus the summer temperature in favored localities often reaches an important height. The mean temperature of the three summer months at Julianehaab, in South Greenland, is 48° F.; at Upernivik, farther north, it is 38° F. The long, dark winters are bitterly cold, the average temperature in South Greenland ranging from -7° to -20° F., while in the north temperatures of 60° to -70° F. have been recorded. January is the coldest month in the southern part of Greenland, and February in the north. The differences between the summer temperatures of the north and south are less than those between the winter temperatures. The east coast has a somewhat higher temperature than the west coast. April and August bring the larg est precipitation, and the climate of the northern part of the island is drier than that of the south.

From the rock exposures along the coastal belts, it is inferred that the most of Greenland is composed of Archæan formations, chiefly gneiss and other crystalline rocks. Along the middle parts of both the west and east coasts it is found