which consumes the larger part of the product, the graphite has to be mixed with clay and sand. Recently the substitution of a mixture of graphite and grease for red lead has met with much success. Since graphite, as it occurs in nature, is always mixed with other minerals, the material after being mined is crushed, and then put through some kind of cleaning or concentration process. The separation is done either by means of an air-current or water, preferably the latter. In 1898 the manufacture of artificial graphite from coke was begun at Niagara Falls, and in the year of its discovery 200,000 pounds of carbon rods were graphitized in the electric furnaces, while in 1900 the production had risen to 860,750 pounds. It is said that the artificial product is fully equal to the natural material in its electrical conductivity, for use as a lubricant, and in the manufacture of stove-polish or lead pencils.

Although the production of graphite in the United States has been increasing almost every year, still the amount produced is far from sufficient to supply the domestic demand. The imports therefore continue to be large. In 1897 the imports were 19,114,000 pounds, valued at $270,952, and in 1900 they were 32,299,000 pounds, valued at $1,390,141. The production of the United States for the same years was 3,393,000 pounds ($56,091), and 6,193,000 pounds ($172,762), respectively.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Newberry, "The Origin of Graphite," in School of Mines Quarterly, vol. viii. (New York, 1887); Dawson, "On the Graphite of the Laurentian, in Canada," in Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, vol. xxvi. (London, 1870); Postlethwaite, "On the Formation of Graphite in Contact Metamorphism," in American Journal of Science, vol. xii. (New Haven, 1891); Downs, "Occurrence, Treatment, and Application of Graphite," series of articles in the Iron Age (New York, 1900); Weinschenk, Zur Kenntniss der Graphitlagerstätten (Munich, 1897). For statistics of production and notes in regard to the trade, consult The Mineral Industry (New York, 1893-1902). GRAPHOPHONE (from Gk. ypaph, graphe, writing+pwvh, phōné, voice). A machine for recording and reproducing sound, invented by Charles S. Tainter and Chichester A. Bell. Its principle is essentially that of the phonograph (q.v.), but it differed from Edison's original instrument in substituting a wax cylinder into which the record was cut for the tinfoil, which was merely indented by the stylus. It was the first phonograph to use a wax cylinder.

GRAPHOTYPE (from Gk. ypaph, graphe, writ ingrumos, typos, type). A process for producing illustrations using an engraved surface, from which printing can be effected on an ordinary press. Drawings are made on a zinc plate covered with finely powdered French chalk, brought to a hard, firm surface by great pressure. The picture is drawn with a camel's-hair brush and an ink made of glue and lampblack. The uninked portion is then rubbed away and an electrotype made of the picture. This method was only partially successful, and has been superseded by other and more modern processes.

GRAPNEL. See ANCHOR. GRAPTOLITE, grap'tô-lit (from Gk. Yparrós, graptos, written, marked + 2íos, lithos, stone).

A class of extinct animals, allied to the hydrozoa, fossil remains of which are found in the lower Paleozoic rocks, especially in those of Upper Cambrian, Ordovician, and Silurian age. The group derives its name from the likeness of its members to pencil markings on the rocks. They are found most abundantly in black shale formations, and they are of great importance to the geologists because of their numerous species, that follow each other in rapid evolutional series through successively higher formations. Because of these lines of descent and the wide distribution of the species, graptolites are ideal horizon-markers or index fossils in the lower Paleozoic rocks. The graptolites are delicate hydroid-like colonies growing from a minute embryonal polyp that was incased in a chitinous theca or cell, called the 'sicula.' From this sicula grew, by budding, a series of zooids or individuals, the form of which is still recognizable in that of their fossilized chitinous coverings, the thecæ. Refined methods of isolation and decoloration of the graptolite colonies have been developed by Holm and Wiman, and have enabled these observers to remove the colonies bodily from the inclosing rock, and section them in a microtome after much the same methods employed in histology. In this way the structure of the graptolite colonies has been shown to be much more complicated than had been suspected. This is especially true of the first group, the Dendroidea, to which belong sessile colonies with the forms of miniature trees (Dendrograptus) or of woven baskets (Dictyonema) (q.v.). In these Dendroidea three different forms of thecæ have been found, viz.: Thecæ proper, or nourishing individuals; alternating canals, considered by Wiman as gonangia or reproductive individuals; and gemmating or budding individuals. Other authors, as Frech, held the alternating canals to have been nematophores. See HYDROIDS.

older Dichograptide and the younger DiplograpThe second group, Graptoloidea, consists of the tide. In the former there grow, by successive forkings, from the sicula or embryonal cell, which is centrally situated, more or less numerous branches, each of which grows distally (at its extremity) and consists of a single series of theca proper. This family, which begins in the upper Cambrian and does not extend beyond the Ordovician, exhibits a most remarkable evolution from irregular many-branched forms (Clonograptus) to symmetrical forms with eight branches (Dichograptus), then to four-branched forms (Tetragraptus), and finally to biramous species (Didymograptus), with which last the family becomes extinct. An aberrant side line from this family is the genus Phyllograptus, in which the four branches of Tetragraptus become united along their dorsal sides to form colonies with cross-shaped sections.

The younger Diplograptide, of which the type genus is Diplograptus, possess a central disk which apparently was a 'float,' and which bore a circle of reproductive sacs (gonangia), containing siculæ and numerous stipes (hydrorhabds). The latter are biserial in Diplograptus, each being borne on a long stem (hydrocaule), with a sicula at its farther end, from which the cells grow backward along the stem. The latter forms hence an axis within the stipe, wherefore Diplograptus and its allies have been separated, as

Axonophora, from the preceding forms (Dichograptide) without axes, as Axonolipa. Diplograptus begins in the Middle Ordovician, and extends a short distance into the Silurian. It is succeeded by forms possessing the same general structure of the colonies, but with only uniserial arrangement of the cells, the Monograptide. These flourished in the Silurian, where their colonies attained a great variety of form. Only the genus Dictyonema passes with a few species into the Devonian system.

The systematic position of the graptolites is uncertain. They are usually classed with the Hydroidea, as they show a general resemblance to some of the members of that group, namely the Sertularians. The rapid evolution of the graptolites and the different aspects of the faunules of successive beds has permitted the recog nition of numerous graptolite zones in the Ordovician and Silurian rocks. In the Swedish Silurian alone fifteen zones have been distinguished. Some of the graptolite zones exhibit an astonishingly wide geographical distribution; a like succession of graptolite faunas has been found in Scandinavia, Great Britain, France, North America, and Australia. This extensive distribution, which gives the graptolites great importance for the correlation of geographically widely separated Paleozoic formations, is due to their having been pelagic animals, which were either freefloating or fastened to seaweeds floating in the open ocean. They are in sharp contrast to the great majority of the fossils, corals, mollusks, and crustaceans, which were littoral animals, living in the shallow waters near the shore. For this reason the graptolites are nearly always found separated from other fossils, in a facies or peculiar rock phase of their own, the graptolite shales, mostly dark gray and black carbonaceous shales, upon the bedding planes of which they are crowded in immense numbers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. Zittel and Eastman, Textbook of Paleontology, vol. i. (London and New York, 1900), where a short bibliographic list is given; Hall, "Graptolites of the Quebec Group," in Canadian Organic Remains, Decade II., Geological Survey of Canada (Montreal, 1865); Holm, various papers on the graptolites, in Geologiska Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar (Stockholm, 1895-1900); Lapworth, "Notes on the British Graptolites," in Geological Magazine, vols. x. and xiii. (London, 1873-76); Wiman, "On Monograptus and Diplograptus," in Journal of Geology, vol. ii. (Chicago, 1893); Wiman, "Ueber die Graptoliten," Bulletin of the Geological Institute of the University of Upsala, vol. ii. (Upsala, 1895); Ruedemann, "Synopsis of Recent Progress in the Study of Graptolites," in American Naturalist, vol. xxxii. (Boston, 1898); id., "Growth and Development of Goniograptus," in Bulletin of the New York State Museum, No. 52 (Albany, 1902). See HYDROZOA; CELENTERATA; CAMBRIAN SYSTEM; ORDOVICIAN SYSTEM; SILURIAN SYSTEM.

GRAS, grå, BASILE (1836-1901). A distinguished French military officer and inventor. He was born at Saint-Amans de Pellaga (Department of Tarn-et-Garonne), and was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique and the Ecole d'Application at Metz. It was a time when all the nations of Europe were casting about for an improved infantry firearm, and the known genius

of Captain Gras soon gained him national recognition. His fusil modèle (or 'Gras rifle'), as it was universally known, was adopted by the French Government, and in 1874 the infantry troops were armed with it. It was subsequently displaced by the discovery and introduction of the magazine principle, the Lebel rifle taking its place in the French Army. It is still occasionally used, however, in Asia and South America. Gras became a professor at the School of Gunnery at Châlons, and was appointed a permanent member of the Government commission on firearms at that place. In 1888 he was appointed general inspector of the manufacture of small arms, receiving also the rank of general of division. He was a recognized authority in his branch of the military profession, and was the author of many important papers and treatises in service magazines.

GRAS, FÉLIX (1844-1901). A writer of the modern Provençal language. He was born at Malemort, Vaucluse, May 3, 1844. After completing his studies at Béziers, he settled in Avignon, where he became associated with the founders of the modern Provençal revival. Joseph Roumanille, the so-called father of the Félibrige, was his brother-in-law. He expressed his republican sentiments in a kind of operatic piece, La Carmagnole, the performances of which were stopped by the authorities. His first verses in Provençal appeared in the Armana Provençau (Provençal Annual), in 1867. In 1876 he published Li Carbounié, a narrative poem in twelve cantos, and six years later Toloza, a more successful poem, also in twelve cantos, treating of the Albigensian Crusade. His best work in poetry is the Romancero Provençal, a collection of songs and short pieces. A volume of stories called Li Papalino, treating of the days of the popes in Avignon, appeared in 1891. All these writings were published in Provençal with a French translation. In 1891 he succeeded Roumanille as Capoulié (chief) of the Félibrige, which position he held until his death. In 1898 appeared his historic novel The Reds of the Midi. Singularly enough, it was first published in New York, in the English translation of Mrs. Catharine Janvier. A year later he wrote The Terror and The White Terror, a sequel to The Reds of the Midi; these were published in Provençal, French, and English, the English version being made by Mrs. Janvier. Félix Gras died March 4, 1901. See FÉLIBRIGE.

GRASBERGER, gräs bĕr-ger, LORENZ (1830 -). A German classical philologist, born at Hartpennig. He was appointed a professor at the University of Wurzburg in 1867. His most important work is a comprehensive history of education in antiquity, Erziehung und Unterricht im klassischen Altertum (1864-81).

GRASHOF, gräs hof, FRANZ (1826-93). A German engineer, born at Düsseldorf, and educated at the Industrial School in Berlin. In 1863 he was appointed professor of applied mechanics at the Polytechnical School, Karlsruhe, and director of the department of machine construction in that institution. For more than thirty-five years he was president of the Society of German Engineers, which society upon his death erected a monument to his memory at Karlsruhe. Besides numerous contributions to periodicals and editions of Redtenbacher's Re

sultate für den Maschinenbau (1870 and 1875), he wrote the independent works entitled: Theorie der Elasticität und Festigkeit mit Bezug auf ihre Anwendungen in der Technik (2d ed. 1878), and Theoretische Maschinenlehre (in three parts, 1875, 1883, 1890).

GRASLITZ, gräslits (Bohemian Kraslice). One of the most important manufacturing towns of Bohemia, situated 20 miles north of Eger (Map: Austria, C 1). Noteworthy among its many manufactures are lace, linens, ready-made articles of dress, and wind instruments. Population, in 1890, 10,009; in 1900, 11,803.

GRASMERE, grås'mēr. A village near a lake of the same name in Westmoreland, England,

four miles northwest of Ambleside. It is famous as a favorite residence of the Lake School of poets, Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey (Map: England, C 2). Population, in 1891, 1016; in 1901, 781. The village, picturesquely situated at the head of the lake, contains the ancient church of the Excursion, and in the churchyard are the graves of Wordsworth and Hartley Coleridge. The lake, oval in form, with its 'one green island,' is 14 miles long, half a mile broad, and 130 feet deep. It is girdled by high mountains, and forms one of the most beautiful scenes in England, nearly every point of which is celebrated in Wordsworth's poetry.

GRASS. See GRAMINEE; GRASSES. GRASS (AS. græs, Goth., OHG._gras, Ger. Gras; ultimately connected with Eng. green, grow, and with Lat. gramen, Gk. xopros, chortos, grass). The herbage or vesture of the soil (vestura terra). It is a part of the soil or land in which it grows, and passes, like standing trees and houses, with the freehold. It may be cut by a tenant for life or years without impeachment of waste, but it does not come under the description of an emblement (q.v.), not being an annual crop of the sort which a tenant at will may, after the termination of his lease, gather as the fruit of his labor. See also COMMON; PASTURE.

GRASS BASS. See CALICO BASS.

GRASS CLOTH. A name often, although erroneously, given to certain beautiful fabrics manufactured in the East from different kinds of fibres, none of which are produced by grasses. One of these fabrics is made from the fibre of Bohmeria nivea, popularly called ramie (q.v.), or China-grass; another, also known as pina muslin, from the fibre of Bromelia pigna. (See BEHMERIA and BROMELIACEE.) The kinds of cloth really made from the fibre of grasses are extremely coarse.

It

GRASSE, grås. The capital of an arrondissement in the Department of Alpes-Maritimes, France, 18 miles west of Nice, and 8 miles from the Mediterranean (Map: France, N 8). is picturesquely situated on a garden-covered hill, and has steep and narrow streets. Public buildings of historic and artistic interest are the hospital chapel, with its three paintings by Rubens, the parish church, an ancient cathedral, dating from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, and the city hall, a former bishop's palace. Grasse is one of the largest perfume and essence manufacturing centres of France, and about 60,000 acres in its vicinity are covered with flower-gardens. Considerable quantities of essence of flowers are exported to Cologne and other

places. The town dates from its settlement by Sardinian Jews in the sixth century. Population of the commune, in 1901, 15,429, of whom about 9000 lived in the town.

GRASSE, FRANÇOIS JOSEPH PAUL, Marquis DE GRASSE-TILLY, Count de (1722-88). A French admiral, who commanded the French fleet at the siege of Yorktown during the American Revolution. He was born in Provence, and began his naval career at fifteen in the service of the Knights of Malta. Later entering the French navy, he was promoted to be a lieutenant in 1754 and a captain in 1762. In 1778 he commanded a squadron that was sent to join d'Estaing in the West Indies, and took part in the operations at Saint Lucia and Santo Domingo. In 1781, with the rank of admiral, he was placed in command of the new French fleet sent to America, which was intended both to reenforce the French in the West Indian waters and to cooperate with Rochambeau on the North American continent. After touching first in the West Indies, the fleet of 29 sail reached Chesapeake Bay on August 30th, where De Grasse blockaded the James and York rivers, and on September 5th repulsed an attack of the English fleet under Graves. After rendering invaluable assistance at the siege of Yorktown (q.v.) he sailed away to the West Indies again, where his operations for some time were crowned with great success. Finally, off Santo Domingo, on April 12, 1782, he met the English fleet under Rodney, who signally defeated him and carried him a prisoner to London. Charges of incapacity and even treason were brought against him, and although after a thorough examination he was exonerated by the Council of War, he never again held a naval command. He wrote in his own defense a Mémoire justificatif (1782). Consult: The Operations of the French Fleet Under De Grasse in 1781-2, in "Bradford Club Series," No. 3 (New York, 1864); Magazine of American History, vol. vi. (New York, 1881); Winsor, Narrative and Critical History of America, vol. iv. (London, 1886-89).

GRASSERIE, grås're' (Fr.). A disease of silkworms, not contagious and not hereditary, and apparently produced by a lowering of the temperature of the rearing-room. Affected worms crawl slowly and have a stretched, thin skin. A liquid exudes through the skin, soiling the food and the neighboring worms. Proper regulation of the temperature is the remedy. See SILK

WORM.

GRASSES (Gramineœ). A natural order of plants, which contains more than 300 genera and 3500 species. Its members vary in size from mosslike specimens less than an inch in height to gigantic bamboos 100 feet or more tall. They are distributed over nearly the whole world; some are characteristic of the hottest tropical regions, others of the far north and south, in the vicinity of almost perpetual snows. In number of specimens they are most abundant in the north temperate zone, where they clothe with verdure immense tracts of prairie, meadow, and steppe, and may be found growing or may be made to grow on almost every kind of soil. Some species are peculiar to dry, sterile soils; others will flourish only in rich soils with abundant moisture. Some grow in marshes, stagnant water, or slow streams, and others only along

the seacoast. None are truly marine. Some are annual, others perennial. The roots of all grasses are fibrous. Many have more or less thickened underground rootstocks or rhizomes, which are not true roots; but modified stems, from which roots are sent out and from which new plants may arise under conditions favorable to propagation. The stems, which usually branch more or less at their bases, are round or slightly flattened, jointed, and hollow between the joints except in maize, sorghum, and a few other species. The parts of the stem between the joints, or nodes, are called the internodes. The stem elongates by growth at the base of the internodes. From the nodes, or joints, arise the leaves and branches. In some grasses roots are put out from the joints when near or lying upon the ground. If a stem is bent or broken so as to lie upon the ground, growth at once begins in the lower side of the stem and is rapidly continued until the stem again assumes an upright position. In most grasses the stems are herbaceous; in the bamboos and some other species they are woody. The leaves consist of two parts, the sheath and the blade. The sheath, which is split on the opposite side from the blade, invests the stem and protects the lower growing portion of the internode. At the top of the sheath is usually found a thin membranous prolongation, called the ligule. The leaf-blade is usually long and narrow, with nearly parallel longitudinal

veins.

Many grasses are provided with peculiar adaptations to protect them against drought and hot winds. Between the veins on one side or the other are large, thin-walled cells that keep the leaf expanded when normal conditions are present. When dried by hot winds they collapse and cause the leaf to roll its margins inward, thus protecting it against too great evaporation. When rain comes the cells swell out and cause the leaf to return to its normal shape. The position of the leaves upon the stem in grasses is opposite and two-ranked, a character by which grasses may

PAMPAS GRASS.

be distinguished from sedges, which have threeranked leaves. Lawn and meadow grasses have leaves that grow constantly from their bases, so that when cut they quickly elongate, instead of remaining in the shorn condition. Grass-flowers possess only the essential organs, i.e. stamens and

pistils; the scales and bracts surrounding them are reduced and modified leaves. The flowers of some grasses have both stamens and pistils; others have the staminate and pistillate flowers upon different parts of the plant, as in the case of maize, in which the tassel consists of staminate flowers and the silk of the ears of the pistillate flowers. Still others have them upon different individuals. The usual number of stamens in the flower is three, but the number varies from one to six, and in some genera they may be from 20 to 30. The anthers, which are usually conspicuous, are generally attached by the middle of their backs to the slender filaments, so that they sway in the winds. The pistils consist of the ovary and usually two plumose stigmas,

BUFFALO GRASS.

which may be sessile or raised upon styles. The ovary contains a single ovule, which ripens with the ovary wall, or pericarp, into a true caryopsis. The flowers are arranged in spikelets, which conAt the base of each tain one or more flowers. flower is a bract, or reduced leaf, called the flowering glume, and at the base of each spikelet are commonly found two empty glumes. The axis or stem that carries the glumes is called the rachilla. Between the rachilla and the individual flower there is a small, nerved, membranaceous bract called the palea or palet. glumes, which vary exceedingly in different species, may have awns (bristle-like appendages, as the 'beard' of wheat) or may be sharp-pointed or rounded, entire or toothed at their apexes.

The

All of these characters are of importance in determining the species of grasses. The arrangement of the spikelets in the head, as it is often improperly called, is varied. They may be sessile along the axis, as in wheat, forming a spike; they may all be arranged on one side of the axis or rachis, forming a raceme, or the rachis may branch widely into a panicle, as in oats, blue grass, etc., and there are many intermediate forms between these. According to their most common uses grasses may be divided into lawn, pasture, and hay grasses. Among the more common grasses suited to lawns are blue grass, Rhode Island bent grass redtop, Bermuda grass, Saint Augustine grass, and buffalo grass. Pasture grasses include: Redtop, blue grass, bent grass, fescue, orchard grass, brome grass, Bermuda grass, grama grass, rye-grass, blue-stem, and mesquit. Hay grasses include: Timothy, orchard grass, redtop, blue grass, brome grass, Johnson grass, tall oat-grass, meadow fescue, meadow foxtail, ryegrass, Guinea grass, crab-grass, crested dog's tail, etc. In addition many grasses are especially