ILLUSTRATIONS AND THE TEACHING OF LATIN.

By W. H. S. JONES, M.A. Perse School, Cambridge.

The art of composition, that is, of intelligent arrangement of thought, is more effectually illustrated by a picture than in any other way.-THRING.

D

URING the early stage of the teaching of Latin the question of a suitable "content becomes of great importance. Something must be done to create a Roman atmosphere, and to prevent the study from being entirely linguistic. It is the recognition of this necessity that has caused the enormous output of illustrated editions during recent years. Lately, a reaction has set in. It is affirmed that the illustrations are badly chosen and incorrectly executed, and further, that they arouse the wrong kind of interest, disturbing the work in hand instead of aiding it. The wrong choice and inaccuracy of the illustrations are fair points to attack, although it must be urged that they are not inherent faults, but such as care and experience may overcome. But the other objection is more serious. Too many interruptions in the course of the construing lesson are certainly to be avoided. But illustrations can be used to teach the language and afford practice in composition during the first and second years of Latin. If so, the objection of divided interest falls to the ground. Attention is concentrated upon the objects represented and their Latin equivalents. Something, at least, can be said in favour of such a course, although it must not be supposed that translation can be altogether dispensed with, nor that pictures smooth away all the difficulties from the path of the learner. At most they make Latin a greater reality, a more living language, and help the imagination in reconstructing the shadowy past.

Under the present system, Latin is begun early, and the child has usually to contend with two great difficulties on commencing his studies. He is introduced to a world that is outside his senseexperience. "Miles, a soldier," suggests to his mind, not the Roman legionary, but a red- or khaki-coated "Tommy." He is ignorant of the force of an inflexion; a declension, or a conjugation, has no meaning for him. Unless he is precociously advanced in his grammar, he finds it very hard, in fact rarely tries, to discriminate between mensa and mensam. Pictures and models, used as the basis of composition, will certainly lessen the former difficulty, and may be useful in removing the latter.

The repugnance felt by a child to a Latin declension is due to his ignorance of its nature and use. Even when the few English declensions (who, whom, whose and the like) are familiar, and some progress has been made in French, there is still something mysterious and unmeaning in mensa, mensa, mensam, and the rest of the rigmarole. The present writer well remembers the state of

perplexity which followed his being informed that mensa could mean "O table." What manner of people might these strange folk be who spoke to their tables? Surely something can be done to put more meaning into the lifeless forms. If the class be shown models or pictures of Roman soldiers, and then be told, with translation if necessary, Ibi gladius est; miles gladium habet; mucro gladii acutus est, and so on, the child-mind will after a while be prepared to learn the paradigm and the names of the cases that compose it. Of course it is not intended that the process should be prolonged. As soon as the child understands what a paradigm is, he may learn similar paradigms at once. A paradigm is a shorthand summary of certain facts of language. When these facts are understood, but not before, the shorthand is an aid to memory. If a declension be learned

SIGNUM HAUD DUBIUM.

before the meanings of the cases, it may be repeated parrot-wise, but the knowledge is useless, for it cannot be applied. It is as well, however, to anticipate the impression that pictures are meant to be an easy and rapid road to a knowledge of Latin. On the contrary, the difficulties must be faced, the paradigms learned. But it is equally necessary that they should be learned intelligently.

Another use of pictures and models is to serve as material for composition. Ordinary illustrations will often suffice, but they may be specially prepared for the purpose. Series of pictures, representing the chief moments of a story, have been successfully used in modern-language teaching, and there is no reason why they should not be equally serviceable to the classical master. Under careful guidance a class may learn, by working with their teacher, the laws they must obey in writing a piece of composition. The following are short descriptions of a series of six pictures used by the present writer for this purpose :

I. Sextus Tarquinius being flogged. II. The people of Gabii welcome him. III. Sextus sends a messenger to his father. IV. Tarquinius Superbus strikes off the tallest poppy heads.

V. The chief men of Gabii are led away to death or exile.

VI. The Romans enter and take possession of the city.

Now it is obvious that the pictures in this case cannot give the whole of the story. No one can tell, unless he is familiar with the legend, that the gentleman in IV., striking down the poppies, is the Roman king, and father of the gentleman in I. who is receiving the flogging. So at some point or other in the lesson the teacher must impart such information as is absolutely necessary.

If the class consists of boys in their second or third year of Latin, the lesson takes somewhat the following form. The class looks at the first picture, and then the master asks about whom they are going to talk. Answer: Sextus Tarquinius. Teacher: "What are you going to say about him ?" The question may be asked in Latin if it be thought advisable. Answer: Verbera patitur. Teacher: Cur verbera patitur? Answer: Ut Gabinos fallat. It may happen that a boy will suggest the addition of sua sponte or iussu patris, or even the prefixing of Cum Romani Gabios vi expugnare non possint. Perhaps no boy is ready with an answer, or the answer given is imperfect. The teacher must then suggest an answer, or bring about the amendment of the faulty one. He must pay attention to the order of words, and show how the order of words is, roughly speaking, the order of thought. Plenty of scope is thus given to his ingenuity and power of stimulating interest. When the first picture is finished the final description is written on the blackboard, thus:

Cum Romani Gabios vi expugnare non possint, Sextus Tarquinius, filius Superbi, sua sponte verbera patitur ut Gabinos fallat.

PICTURE II.

In this way the second sentence is composed. Illi vulneribus visis eum lacti excipiunt. And the story might go on: Tandem imperio summo potitus Sextus epistulam ad patrem mittit ut discat quid sit faciendum. Ille veritus ne infidus sit nuntius nihil voce respondet, sed in hortum progressus summa capita papaverum baculo decutit. Quibus renuntiatis Sextus ubi intellegit quid pater velit primores aut occidit aut expellit. Deinde rebus occisorum populo divisis placet ut Romani Gabiis potiantur.

The whole story is then copied from the board by each boy into an exercise book kept for the

purpose. As each boy has a copy of the pictures, and, so to speak, sees the events taking place before his eyes, it is natural to have the story told in the present tense, as above. Afterwards, (e.g., as home-work), it can be written out in the past. This will involve attention to sequence of tenses, to the difference between perfect and imperfect, and so on. Other variations are possible. Sextus may tell the story, or Tarquin the Proud, or the people of Gabii. Later on more advanced pupils may compose original themes without help, but at first these must be avoided. If allowed a free hand young boys will simply evade difficul

ties.

come

The chief value of such a lesson as the one outlined above is its elasticity, and the consequent possibilities of hearty coöperation between teacher and class. By working with his pupils the teacher shows them how they ought to work by themselves. At the same time he is prepared to welany suggestion and turn it to the best advantage. The "average boy," who often sinks into listless apathy after a few terms at translation exercises he does not quite understand, is roused to action when he sees his teacher working with him and leading him to the achievement of something artistic. And all the while the connection between words and ideas is kept alive by the use of visual-impressions, instead of words, to suggest the ideas to be clothed in a Latin dress, an excellent antidote for the mechanical, word-for-word operation into which translation is apt to degene rate. There is no opportunity for the learner to mistake what he has to express in Latin. In a picture all is clear-cut and precise. Finally, that capture of the attention by the illustration, a serious drawback during a construing lesson, is a positive virtue when the details of the illustration form the subject which the pupils have to turn into Latin.

But it must not be supposed that other exercises are superseded by this use of pictures. One lesson a week-possibly two with young boys-is quite enough to accomplish the end in view. Transla tion, construing, learning of nouns and verbs, are as necessary as ever. It is only contended that picture-composition throws an intelligent interest into the more formal exercises.

Illustrations, then, may be used in the very first period of Latin teaching to familiarise the child with inflexions, as a preliminary to the learning of paradigms, by making him connect inflected forms with various relations coming within his sense-experience. At a later stage pictures and picture-stories may be used as material for composition. During both periods something is being done to enlarge the learner's stock of Romar ideas, and so help him to reconstruct the life of the people whose language he is studying. It may be added that, much of the work being viva voce, progress is more rapid than when composition is taught by writing alone.

These few remarks are the outcome of the writer's personal experience. He has used pictures with three forms representing three stages

of development, and the results are even better than he expected. Too much is not claimed for them, but any plan is worth a trial which a trial which promises to make progress in Latin easier and

more sure.

A SELECT LIBRARY OF PEDAGOGY.

WHE

By FOSTER WATSON, M.A.

Professor of Education, University College, Aberystwyth. WHEN the editors of THE SCHOOL WORLD asked me to write on the subject of a select library of pedagogics, such as could be purchased for £5, I thought the task would be much easier than I have found it to be. The books I have named, in their entirety, would cost over £10, but it seemed better to offer scope for choice. There are, I believe, many teachers who would gladly know what books are best worth reading and getting. I want, therefore, to offer a fairly comprehensive, though a choice list.

Mr.

We must admit that English books on education are often far from attractive reading. Quick suggests that the only English educationist whose reputation is European is John Locke, and of him it may be said he is read rather as a philosopher than as an educationist. It is probable that Herbert Spencer now commands as wide an attention and probably as high a reputation as Locke. But even when we add the names of such English writers as one has seen in foreign translations, the list is very small. English writers on education who can gain a hearing because of the attractiveness of their style are comparatively few. Time was when educationists received attention from those who could read, as, for instance, in the days of Erasmus, Budaeus, Vivès, Sturm, Melanchthon, Sadolet; but these were literary men as well as teachers. In England we had, similarly, men who interested their fellows in problems of teaching, because they wrote in an interesting way. Such, surely, were Sir John Elyot in his " Governour," Roger Ascham in his "Schoolmaster," and John Milton in his "Tractate of Education."

If a reader is specially in sympathy, and has particular knowledge of some period of English history or literature, I believe it is an excellent plan to take an outstanding educational author of the period and read carefully with a view of seeing how far the writer is adapting his educational aims and methods to the effective advance of the culture-ideals of his age. The struggle to adjust educational material and method to religious, philosophical, political, social, and recreational ideals of his time, is usually fairly evident if looked for, and constitutes in itself at once an intellectual inquiry into the material (ie., subjects of study) of education and the processes of imparting the material, and at the same time shows the action and reaction between an educational system and the environment in which it is placed.

As an example of the method I suggest, take Rousseau's "Emile." I cannot imagine a sounder training in educational thought for a student interested in the French Revolution and the events leading to it than to read the "Emile"; if in French, so much the better. I mention this at the outset because we have in English a "Life and Criticism of Rousseau" which takes high rank in English criticism. I mean Mr. John Morley's "Rousseau."

Rousseau's "Emile" in the International Education Series. (Appleton.) 6s. Morley's "Rousseau," 2 vols. Eversley Series. (Macmillan.) 4s. each, net.

It is true we do not hear of Mr. John Morley's book on Rousseau or his treatise on National Education, or his book on Compromise, as set books in examinations on education; nevertheless, I am inclined to think that those who have not read the chapters on the Social Contract and Emilius in the second volume of Mr. Morley's "Rousseau," and his other books mentioned above, have neglected to consult some of the most stimulative thoughts on education of recent times. It is such criticism that removes from us the reproach of our unspeakable inferiority to the French. We feel we are in the hands of a master. We listen, we follow the thought. We shall fare hard indeed if in the process we do not find our own educational thought aroused and invigorated. It takes the reader on to that plane of serene, high consideration where education comes to its own.

It will thus be seen that it is highly desirable to read as soon as possible the works on education which count as part of the world's literature. I do not profess to give a full list, but the following I should certainly urge as part of even a small pedagogical library :

"Plato's Republic." Vaughan and and Dain's Translation. Golden Treasury Series. millan.) 2s. 6d. net.

(Mac

Then, as a commentary and criticism: R. L. Nettleship's "Lectures on the Republic of Plato." (Macmillan.) 8s. 6d. net.

Aristotle. There is an excellent little book lately published by the Cambridge University Press, entitled, "Aristotle on Education: being Extracts from the Ethics and Politics." Translated and edited by John Burnet. 2s. 6d.

There is, unfortunately, no book in English on Quintilian. There ought to be, for he is a writer of outstanding importance, and might be made of great interest if properly presented. In the meantime the student can find, in Prof. Paul Monroe's "Source Book of the History of Education for the Greek and Roman Period," a treatment with extracts of Quintilian. Prof. Monroe also gives extracts from the chief Roman and Greek writers on education. (Macmillan, IOS. net.)

Laurie's "Pre-Christian Education" (Longmans, 7s. 6d.) is also a book to buy.

Probably the cheapest way of travelling through the education of the middle ages is to purchase the "Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian Schools" and "Abelard and the Origin and the

Early History of the Universities," in the Great Educator Series (Heinemann, 5s. each). For anyone requiring a fuller insight into and more comprehensive study of mediaval education Lane Poole's "Illustrations of the History of Mediæval Thought" (Williams and Norgate, 10s. 6d.), H. O. Taylor's "Classical Heritage of the Middle Ages" (Macmillan, 7s. 6d. net), and Hastings Rashdall's "History of the Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages" (Clarendon Press, 2 5s. net),

should be studied.

With regard to the history of education since the Renascence, the books usually recommended are, R. H. Quick's "Educational Reformers (Longmans, 3s. 6d.), and Campayne's "History of Pedagogy" (Sonnenschein, 6s.). These are, undoubtedly, valuable manuals, but it seems to me that a book with a wider sweep of knowledge and a larger outlook in the progress of thought should be read and possessed by keener students. I would suggest such a book as Charles Beard's "Reformation of the 16th Century in its Relation to Modern Thought and Knowledge" (Williams and Norgate). Cheaper edition, 3s. 6d. The whole spirit of the book is at once educational and literary. The last two chapters, on the Critical Spirit and the Development of Philosophical Method and Scientific Investigation, seem to me to illuminate the history of culture since the Reformation, and of that culture-history the progress of educational aim and method has naturally followed closely in the wake.

For the best work on the noblest of the Renascence educationists, Vittorino da Feltre, we are fortunate in having Prof. W. H. Woodward's "Vittorino da Feltre and other Renascence Educationists" (Cambridge University Press, 6s.). We may look forward to Prof. Woodward's book on "Erasmus as an Educationist " with the sure expectation that it will, similarly to his Vittorino, be a scholarly and attractive presentation of an educator who must not be neglected, who would assuredly not be overlooked if it were realised how interesting Erasmus is in his own personality and in the history of educational thought. Of Francis Bacon, at least the "Advancement of Learning," Books I. and II. (Clarendon Press, 4s. 6d.) and the "New Atlantis" (Cambridge University Press, Is. 6d.) should be read. Such a commentary is desirable as the section on Bacon in Prof. S. S. Laurie's "Educational Opinion from the Renascence" (Cambridge University Press, 6s.), a book which, despite its eclectic nature of the educators treated, is one of the wisest of the later English books on education.

Roger Ascham's "Schoolmaster for 6d. (Cassell's) or is. (Bell).

can be got

Mr. James Oliphant has edited a series of extracts containing:

"Educational Writings of Richard Mulcaster " (Maclehose, 3s. 6d.), but of course Mr. Quick's

reprint of the "Positions" (Longmans, 10s.) should be obtained by the lover of complete editions.

Milton's "Tractate," is published by the Cambridge University Press. 2S.

For Comenius, either Prof. Laurie's "Account of Comenius's Life and Works" (Cambridge University Press, 3s. 6d.), or Mr. M. W. Keatinge's "Translation, with Historical Introductions, of the Great Didactic" (A. and C. Black, 7s. 6d.) is a desirable possession. So, too, R. H. Quick's "Locke's Thoughts on Education" (Pitt Press, 3s. 6d.) is indispensable to a library of pedagogics.

The great thing in connection with Pestalozzi is to enter into the spirit of his life. For this, read John Russell's translation of R. de Guimps' "Life of Pestalozzi" (Sonnenschein, 6s.). For Froebel the "Education of Man" has been well presented in the International Education Series (Appleton, 6s.). Carré's "Pedagogues of Port Royal" (Sonnenschein, 3s. 6d.) is a desirable book, if there is not time to read either Ste. Beuve or Charles Beard's Port Royal. For the rest I should suggest, to complete this general outlook, Prof. Findlay's "Arnold of Rugby" (Cambridge University Press, 6s.), and the "Series of Lectures on Education in the 19th Century," edited by Dr. R. D. Roberts. (Cambridge University Press, 4s.)

Such a course of reading represents a body of educational ideas. Such a set of books provide material for considering the broader issues of educational progress and development. But it will be asked what about the science of education? Well, I believe that in the future a tendency will set in to consider even a science of education increasingly from the side of an analysis of the constitution of intellectual, moral, and physical culture as found in recorded history as surely as the historical schools of law and of economics have altered the constitution of the older à priori theories of law and economics. It is an astounding fact that there is no satisfactory comprehensive book on English Kultur-Geschichte. expression is borrowed from Germany. Yet this is a desideratum for the basis of the historical side of the science of education.

The very

In the meantime, it is to be clearly borne in mind that education is regarded as one of the mental sciences. It is, however, further regarded as an applied and practical science. Its relation to such sciences as psychology, ethics, logic, and the other mental sciences, is similar to that, say, of engineering to mathematics, physics, geology, and other physical sciences. It is, therefore, necessary to know the chief principles of each of the mental sciences. For this reason a good text. book on each of these subjects should be in the possession of the student of education. I should suggest for example

For Ethics:-J. S. Mackenzie's "Manual of Ethics." (Clive). 6s. 6d. Or J. H. Muirhead's "Elements of Ethics." (Murray). 3s. 6d.

For Psychology:-Sully's "Teacher's Handbook of Psychology." (Longmans). 6s. 6d.

For Logic:-Prof. Welton's "Logical Basis of Education." (Macmillan). 3s. 6d.

But the number of books which might be named as alternatives to these is legion; and I venture to name the above as being distinctly good and useful books, which for compass, soundness, and suggestiveness to the teacher are desirable, in the absence of any other which for very definite reasons the book-buyer knows to be better adapted to his special requirements. In addition to these as not quite falling under any of the above heads, I should add:

Locke's "Conduct of the Understanding." Edited by Fowler. (Clarendon Press.) 2s. And, a book which has quite fallen out of use, but without being quite replaced: Isaac Watts "On the Improvement of the Mind." A book which can be commonly picked up second-hand at any price, between a few pence and a half-crown. Whether there is a modern edition I do not know. Seeing that the theory of education is regarded as an amalgam of ethical, psychological, logical, sociological elements, it is quite clear that books are needed which may give a synthetic view of educational aim and process, within the individual and in groups of individuals. For example: of the latter, books on certain sides of education, e.g., elementary, secondary, and university, which are sociological rather than individual, are extremely numerous, but only few are essential to beginners in a very small library. One should. be named. Cardinal J. H. Newman's "Idea of a University." (Dent). Cloister Library. 2s. 6d. net. It is difficult to distinguish between the two types of writers. The writers who, on the whole, deal with the education of the individual mainly are, for the theory of education, as at present understood, the most important. But there can be no doubt that in English writers the action and reaction between the individual and society is usually scantily treated. So much is this the case that I do not recall in any English treatise on education any thorough-going study of such an obvious problem as the difference of the child as an individual from the child as a member of a class. Indeed, an adequate discussion of the psychology of the individual and the class, in its relation to mental development, would be distinctly valuable.

As examples of a theory of education-or aspects of it-in which the underlying mental sciences have due consideration, the following should be in the possession of the student of education:-Herbart's 66 Science of Education." Felkin's Translation. (Sonnenschein.) 3s. 6d. As commentaries, the following should be ob tained :

Prof. Rein, "Outlines of Pedagogics." (Sonnenschein.) 3s. 6d.

“Kant on Education." Translated by Annette Churton. (Kegan Paul). 2s. 6d. A most valuable little book.

Lange's "Apperception." (Isbister.) 3s. 6d. The most illuminative book on the analysis of the process of communication and reception of ideason Herbartian principles-ever written.

Edward Thring's "Theory and Practice of Teaching." (Cambridge University Press.) 4s. 6d. Is a finely individualistic piece of writing coming straight from the experience of the class-room.

Of Prof. S. S. Laurie's books, I am inclined to say, read and possess, which means read and re-read, all his books. They are the strong utterances of a strong man, who has looked long and closely at education and seen it whole as well as in its parts. I give the prices of the following: "Institutes of Education." (Oliver and Boyd.)

"Language and Linguistic Method." (Cambridge University Press.) 4S. "Training of Teachers and Methods of Instruction." (Cambridge University Press.) 6s.

Prof. Wm. James, "Talks to Teachers." (Longmans.) 4s. 6d. A popular book, though sound, suggestive and attractive.

Rosenkranz, "Philosophy of Education." In: ternational Education Series. (Appleton.) 6s. And in same series (6s.), W. T. Harris, "Psychological Basis of Education." This is undoubtedly the best book in English on education based on predominantly Hegelian principles.

On National Education, certainly the work of A. Fouillée should be read and re-read, for, whether we agree with it or disagree with it, it is an outstanding_modern work, very sugestive and stimulative. It is entitled:

"Education from a National Standpoint." International Education Series. (Appleton.) 7s. 6d.

Of books on method I would suggest only a few; for, when a teacher sees the principles underlying method, much reading is secondary to spontaneity of the teacher's own personality:

Mr. P. A. Barnett's "Teaching and Organisation: a collection of essays by experts in their various branches of teaching. (Longmans.) 6s. 6d.

The late Sir Joshua Fitch's "Lectures on Teaching." (Cambridge University Press.) 5s. A book breathing a truly educational spirit.

Prof. J. J. Findlay's "Principles of Class-Teaching." (Macmillan.) 3s. 6d. A highly suggestive

and enthusiastic treatise.

On no account should be overlooked the little book by Mr. Arthur Sidgwick, "Stimulus." (Cambridge University Press.) Is.

And no one will grudge 6d. for Prof. John Adams's "Primer on Sunday-school Teaching." (T. and T. Clark, Edinburgh.)

A library will do well to possess the useful "Bibliography of Education" by Prof. Will S. Monroe. International Education Series. (Appleton.) 8s. 6d.

I have not quite finished. A teacher or anyone interested in teaching should have Sully's "Studies