spiral, and found at one end, where it was rent out of the cell, that it was also an entire fibre, and I could see that the white spots at the twining was not occasioned by a pore or a hole in the wall of the cell. This observation was very interesting, because it gave me the opportunity of explaining such white spots at the ends of a tender line in the cells of a moss (Sphagnum fimbriatum), which I was unable to do before (Fig. 138).

[Fig. 138]

Sphagnum fimbriatum.

This tender line is nothing else than a spiral. This fibre could not be isolated from the cellulose, but it adhered very fast to it, and broke just at the same place as the cellulose, as you can remark in the lacerated cells of the edge of a slice. That might be considered as the transition to the porous cells (cellulosa porosa), in which the fibres are so grown together as to appear like a continuous membrane beset with little pores. Close by the fibrous cells you can find them in the pith of Geranium (Fig. 137, c). It presented itself in the shape of a ladder, the pores are horizontally disposed at equal distances from each other; in the middle of each pore you can see a transverse line dividing it into two halves-an effect of interference of light. In the thickness of the wall of the cell at both sides, and corresponding to the space between the pores, we remark a swelling of the cellulose; this is the result of the growing together of the fibre and wall.

regular way, depositing ring upon ring, spiral upon spiral, porous layer upon porous layer; or the layers are deposited irregularly-the first is mostly the case.

A transverse and a longitudinal slice of libercells of the Peruvian bark (Cinchona calisaya) gives us a splendid illustration of this. You can pursue the pores through the entire layer, which has the aspect of a series of boxes inclosing one another. (Fig. 139.)

[Fig. 140]

In the starch-cells of the root of Sarsaparilla (Smilax sarsaparilla) the pores are deposited with regularity. I remarked that, by cutting the slice, the pores near the edge did not rend; and by adding iodine, the starch inside the integer cell (Fig. 140, b), attached with its top to the lower end of this lacerated cell, took its blue color merely in accordance with the law of Osmose. The starch granules near the top (Fig. 140, a), where they are separated from the contact of the iodine by two membranes, colored first and more intensely, because the Starch cell Sarsaparilla. capillarity sent a large amount of iodine in that direction.

oc

[Fig. 141.]

Compound starch cell Sarsaparilla.

HOW TO STUDY THE GRASSES.

The study of the grasses is attended with some difficulty on account of the smallness of the parts composing the flowers, and is undertaken by very few, even of those who study with some care the more conspicuous flowering plants. But for those who will have the patience to attempt their investigation, Nature spreads out an open and inviting field, and the explorer will be rewarded by discoveries of as great interest as in any other department.

Let us notice some of the principal parts, or organs, entering into the flower structure of the grasses. The flowers of grasses are sometimes in spikes, as those of Timothy or Herd's-grass, and sometimes in loose, open panicles, as those of Red-top. Each spikelet, or smallest subdivision of the spike or panicle, whether consisting of a single flower or of a number of flowers, has commonly a pair of outer husks called glumes.

Each individual flower is composed of two inner husks or scales called paleæ, three stamens (each consisting of a thread-like stem or filament), a pollen-box or anther, and a pistil, composed of the germ and two hairy or feathery

styles. The outer pair of glumes is sometimes wanting, and in some cases one of the inner pair is either absent or imperfect.

It is well to begin the study of grasses by examining first the structure of some of those having large flowers, as the common Oat (Avena sativa, L.) Here if we take one of the smallest spikelets, we find first a pair of large husks or glumes, one of them at the bottom rather folds over the other, and is affixed to the stem or rachis a little below it, hence it is called the lower glume; the other is called the upper glume. Just within these glumes will be seen two or three flowers, in each of which we may observe the two palets, and, if the specimen is collected in flower, we will find the stamens and styles, but if the ripe oat is examined we shall find within the palets only a grain; or, indeed, one of the two or three flowers may be sterile or imperfect.

A wild grass (Stipa spartea, Trin.) growing on the native prairies and plains of the West, and sometimes called Wild Oats, or Porcupine grass, on account of the slender, twisted awn or bristle, four to six inches long, which encloses the seed, has very conspicuous glumes, one and a half or two inches long; but very few of our grasses have flowers of such magnitude, while in some species the flowers are less than one line in length.

After acquiring familiarity with the floral organs in some of the larger specimens, the learner will have little trouble, with the aid of a common lens, and of the excellent figures in Gray's Manual, in getting an acquaintance with any of the common grasses. We trust our readers will improve the coming season in an investigation of this subject.

POISONOUS PLANTS.

"At Walcott, in this county, on Monday evening, Harry, aged 5 years, son of Dr. T. Byrnes, and Willie, aged 7 years, son of Mr. Barche, died from eating the poisonous root known as wild parsnip or Hemlock. The children were playmates, and about six o'clock took a walk along the railroad track, where they discovered the plant, of which they ate. The first intimation any one had of anything being wrong was about seven o'clock, when little Harry came home and told his mother that his playmate, Willie Barche, was down there (pointing to the railroad) sick. He said, Willie staggers like a drunken man, and he is sick, Mam, he is real sick; and I feel sick, too.' Dr. Byrnes, who was at home, overheard the remark, and, on looking, saw Willie lying down upon the ground. He immediately requested Mr. Peck, station agent, to bring the child to the house. This was done, but the poor little fellow was then in a state of collapse, and

soon went into violent convulsions, and died in half an hour. Mrs. Byrnes, when apprised by her little son that he was sick, consulted her husband, and a strong emetic was given the child. Being asked what he had eaten, he said, 'Only two little roots about as big as my finger.' The child continued to grow worse, and in a short time was seized with convulsions, and, despite all remedies, died at midnight."- Davenport Gazette, April 20.

It is now an appropriate time to give a word of warning respecting poisonous plants. Every spring we find such accounts as the above in the public prints, of cases of poisoning from the use of roots which are mistaken for those of esculent vegetables.

A few years ago, we knew a strong, healthy young Norwegian, who, having found some roots just beginning to develop leaves, ate two or three of them, under the belief that they were parsnips. In an hour or two he was seized with pain and vomiting, and before medical aid was procured he was dead. The roots were those of the Spotted Cowbane (Cicuta maculata, L.), a plant which occurs all over the country in low moist grounds, and has been the occasion of many cases of poisoning.

Two years ago, several children near C'entralia, Ill., were poisoned from eating the roots of another plant, which grows in the southern part of the States of Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, in similar situations with the preceding, and is botanically called Eulophus Americanus, Nutt. It has no definite common name so far as we know.

These two plants belong to the Natural Order Umbellifera, or to the same family as the Caraway, Parsley, Carrot, Parsnip, &c. It embraces many poisonous plants, among them the Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum, L.), the juice of which, it is supposed, was employed by the ancients in the execution of criminals.

Children should be cautioned against eating any wild roots without the sanction of those who are acquainted with them and know what they are. We shall hereafter give some illustrations of these poisonous plants.

WESTERN BOTANY.-A large portion of the native vegetation of the States west of the Mississippi, and particularly of the great Plains of Kansas, Nebraska and Colorado, is not described in the common Text-books of Botany. Hence our friends in those sections will meet with difficulty in becoming acquainted with the plants they meet with there. The names and descriptions of such plants are contained in Pacific Railroad Reports, and in published proceedings of various scientific societies.

THE FLOWERING DOGWOOD.

(Cornus florida, L.)

There are many kinds of Dogwood (Cornus), the most of which are shrubs varying in height from five to ten or fifteen feet, and distributed over nearly all parts of our country. But the most attractive and showy of all the Dogwoods is that species botanically called Cornus florida, L. It is a small tree, growing from fifteen to twenty-five or thirty feet high, having a pretty wide range of latitude, from 47° N. to Florida, being rare, however, in the northern latitudes. Its natural situation is in rocky woods, and on the borders of streams.

It is a very conspicuous object when in flower, from the profusion of large white blossoms, or rather what appear to be blossoms, for the apparent blossoms are not really such. The true flowers are very small, and clustered together in a small head. Each of these minute flowers has all the parts proper to a perfect flower, calyx, corolla, stamens and pistil. Immediately beneath

the cluster is developed four large white leaves, looking like petals, but really forming what is called an involucre. These involucral leaves are inversely heart-shaped, and about an inch and a half long. At a distance they look like the proper petals of a single flower, while the small head of true flowers which they surround looks like the central organs of a flower. A close examination will readily detect the true nature of these parts.

The wood of the Dogwood is very close-grained, hard, capable of an excellent polish, and useful for the manufacture of many articles requiring durability and firmness of texture. The bark of the tree is bitter, and has long been known and employed as a substitute for, or adjuvant of, Peruvian bark and quinine in the treatment of ague and malarious diseases.

The tree is well deserving of cultivation from the showy appearance of the snow-white flowers, or floral appendages (Fig. 142), which contrast finely with the lively green of the foliage, and from the bright red berries which succeed the flowers.

OUR CULTIVATED GRASSES.

The grasses which in this country are cultivated for pasturage and hay-making, are chiefly Blue-grass (Poa pratensis, L.), also called Junegrass, Red-top (Agrostis rulgaris, With.), and Timothy, or Herd's-grass (Phleum pratense, L.) Several other species are occasionally found in lawns and orchards, and an annual species called Millet (Setaria italica, Kunth), is somewhat extensively grown for hay or fodder.

In some portions of the country Blue-grass has acquired an extended reputation as a pasture grass. In Kentucky, Ohio, and some other Western States, it is considered the most valuable of all grasses for pasturage. There has been much discussion during several years past as to the real botanical name of the Kentucky Bluegrass, some contending that it was the Poa compressa, which is also called Blue-grass, and which, in fact, is often found growing with Poa pratensis. The latter has an upright, round stem, or culm, while the former has a reclining and flattened stem, We think there is little doubt among botanists that the June-grass of the Northern States is also the Blue-grass of Kentucky, varied only by differences of soil and climate. The genus Poa includes a number of other species, which have more or less value as forage plants, the most important of which is, probably the Fowl Meadow-grass (Poa serotina, Ehrh.) This is found as a native grass in many parts of the country, forming, indeed, a considerable proportion of the grass of sloughs and wet meadows in Northern Illinois and Wisconsin. Though somewhat coarse, it is a very productive and useful grass.

Red-top (Agrostis vulgaris, With.) is extensively employed in the Northern States as a pasture grass, especially on low, damp grounds. In Pennsylvania it is called Herd's-grass, which name in the Northern States is applied to quite a different grass. Red-top is native both in this country and in England, where it is called Bentgrass. Two other nearly-related species, the White Bent-grass (Agrostis alba, L.), and the Brown Bent-grass, (Agrostis canina, L.) are occasionally found in meadows mixed with common Red-top, and they also are native in some localities in this country. All the species of Agrostis have one-flowered spikelets, in open panicles. Red-top has its name from the reddish color of the flowers and flower branches, which color is very peculiar and distinctive when a large quantity, or a field, is seen at once. The stems are erect, round and smooth, and the roots creeping.

As a grass for hay-making the Herd's-grass, or Timothy (Phleum pratense, L.), is more extensively employed than any other. Its solid stems, and tall, vigorous growth, give a large product of highly nutritive hay. Its flowers are arranged in a compact, cylindrical spike, usually three or four inches long. The spikelets are single-flowered, of two stiff-pointed glumes, including two much sinaller and shorter palets. This grass has been introduced from Europe, where it is native, and also extensively cultivated under the name of Cat's-tail grass.

On the high mountains of New Hampshire, and also on the Rocky Mountains, we have a native species closely related to the Timothy, viz.: Phleum alpinum, L., or what might be called the Alpine Timothy. In Europe there are also several other species belonging to this genus, none of which, however, have been cultivated.

THE HONEY LOCUST.
(Gleditschia triacanthos, L.)

The Honey Locust is a well known tree, principally of the Western and Southern States. It is one of our largest forest trees, the trunk frequently attaining a diameter of three or four feet; but, from its habit of early dividing up into large branches, it does not attain as great height as many smaller trees. It usually forms a broad, open head, with a beautiful light-green foliage, which waves gracefully in the summer breeze.

Its trunk and limbs are usually beset with numerous horrible spines, or thorns, from three to six inches long, each of which has commonly two branches, whence the specific name triacanthos, or three-thorned. These thorns, however, are not constant, as trees are occasionally found which are entirely smooth. Some have supposed these were a different species, but they are in all other respects like the thorny kind, and the seed of either will produce thorny and thornless trees.

The favorite locality of the Honey Locust is in bottom lands, or following the course of small streams. It belongs to the Pea family (Natural Order Leguminosa), but not to the same section as the Black Locust, which has true papillionaceous flowers. Its relationship in the Pea family would not be suspected from the appearance of the flowers, but its pinnate leaves and long pods, or true legumes, easily identify it.

In its flowering habit it is polygamous—that is, the fertile and infertile flowers are either separate or variously mixed on the same tree. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, in short spikes, proceeding from the axils of the leaves.

The fertile ones produce flat, twisted pods, a foot or more in length, and an inch and a half broad, and containing twenty or more pretty large, flat seeds. The pinnate leaves, four to six inches long, are made up of about ten pairs of small oblong leaflets, which are nearly entire on the margin. The pods contain a sweetish pulp, which is said to be employed in some of the Southern States in fermenting a kind of beer.

The tree is a vigorous grower, with a pretty dense, tough-grained wood, which makes excellent fuel. It is not much in request as an ornamental tree, perhaps on account of its formidable thorns, but has been employed to make hedges, and by some is thought to be superior for that purpose to the Osage. It has also been recommended for timber plantations.

THE WOODY COMPOSITE.

Perhaps no family of plants is more numerous in species than that of the so-called Compound flowers (Composita).

In all that part of the country lying east of the Mississippi there is not a shrub or trec belonging to this family. Some kinds, as various species of Sunflower (Helianthus), produce annually a large and heavy growth, but it invariably dies down to the ground at the approach of winter. The roots of many are perennial, but nothing above ground survives a season's growth.

It is not so, however, with several kinds of Composite in the region of the Rocky Mountains, and particularly in the great basins of the western slope. These are various species of Artemesia and Linosyris, all generally classed under the name of Sage brush; and they form a prominent and distinctive feature of the Plains, and in some measure by their woody growth compensate for the absence of trees.

The largest and most common Sage brush is the Artemesia tridentata, Nutt. It is very variable iu size; on dry upland plains not usually over two or three feet high, with a trunk two or three inches in diameter. In valleys and moist ground it often attains a height of eight to ten feet, with a thickness of as many inches. Usually there are a number of stems spreading out from one root. The wood is light and porous, somewhat resembling cedar, and it burns readily even in a green state, as also do the leaves, with a pleasant balsamic fragrance. It is the main dependence, for fuel, of immigrants and travellers on the Plains west of the mountain ranges. It has no resemblance to our cultivated Sage-plant, except in its fragrance,

and belongs to an entirely different family. Its annual growth is very slow. We have often cut bushes of moderate size which indicated forty or fifty years' age, and undoubtedly many of them continue to grow for a century.

Another species, the Artemesia cana, Pursh., is seldom found away from rich moist valleys. It sends up more numerous stalks from one root, i. e., it grows in bushy clumps of twenty or thirty stalks, which are each about an inch in diameter.

Still another species is the Artemesia arbuscula, Nutt. This is very dwarf in habit, seldom growing over a foot high, but often covering hundreds of acres on low mountain slopes.

The bushes of Linosyrus are quite similar in general habit to those of the Artemesia, but do not grow as large. There are also several species of that genus.

NEW BOOK.

THE AMERICAN BOTANIST AND FLORIST. By ALPHONSO WOOD, A. M., author of the Class Book of Botany, &c. A. S. Barnes & Co., New York and Chicago.

This is a handsome, well-printed volume of nearly 600 pages, possessing some features of great merit. The part devoted to structural and physiological botany is an example of great condensation, and is profusely illustrated. The definitions are generally very clear and concise. In some instances, we think, technical names are unnecessarily employed, as for instance, pleurenchyma instead of fibrous tissue, and trachyenchyma instead of vascular tissue. Where English words will convey the idea intended, we think they should be employed in preference to foreign ones; thus head is a better word than capitulum, and cluster is to be preferred to glomerule, etc.

The portion of the volume devoted to descriptive botany professes to record the characters of nearly 4,000 species of the native and cultivated plants of the United States east of the Mississippi river. The introduction of greenhouse exotics is, we think, carried too far; for instance, we have given us fifteen species of Begonia, a genus of which we have no native representative. As an accommodation to city classes, whose acquaintance with plants is mostly limited to the cultivated exotics, this may be well enough, but for students wishing to study the productions of their own country, we think this matter is superfluous, and that its space would be better filled by expanding the descriptions of our native plants.

FERNS AND MOSSES.-The Ferns and Mosses are beautiful objects and well deserving the study of young ladies. Good specimens are finely adapted to parlor collections for ornament as well as for study. There are about sixty species of ferns in the Northern States. Many of them are very delicate and beautiful. The fructification is generally in small dots or lines on the back of the leaves.