Imágenes de páginas
PDF
EPUB

their souls bowed before the priest. The temporary abolition of his civil power only showed them what a far more ponderous yoke the Holy Father had riveted upon the Roman neck.

The attack of the popular party on the Cardinal Gerard of St. Pudentiana, brought affairs to a crisis. The deputies of the people had been previously dismissed by Adrian with contemptuous silence; but he now resolved upon a

severer measure.

What the cessation of its gaiety would be to Paris-of its literary activity to Berlin-of its commerce to Londonsuch must have been the effect of the sentence of Papal interdict to Rome; and this fearful ban Adrian was not slow to pronounce. The very life and soul of the consecrated city must have been paralysed by a sentence which even when executed in less sacred localities, "was calculated to strike the senses in the most impressive manner. The people were deprived of the exterior rites of religion; the altars were divested of their decorations; the instruments of sacred worship were laid on the ground; the sound of the bells ceased in the churches; no ecclesiastical ordinances were administered, but baptism and the communion of the dying; the bodies of the dead, excluded from consecrated ground, were thrown into the ditches, or buried in the fields; the use of meat, all amusements, and pleasures were forbiden; everything appeared as in darkness and distress, and as though there were danger of the immediate infliction of the Divine indignation and wrath." The infliction of such a penalty on a city of churches and church festivals, must have roused the gloomiest imaginations of a superstitious people. The phantom of political emancipation-however charming when it occupied the whole field of mental vision-grew wan and weak among the intrusive and threatening eidola of alienated patrons and avenging angels. Arnaldo was banished by the terrified republicans; and the holy Father consented to take up his abode among his repentant children. The reformer had, however, found a hiding-place among friends of noble rank in Campania; while he left his ecclesiastical foe to renew the scarcely less hazardous contest between the Papal throne and its here

* History of All Ages, p. 437.

ditary rival, the imperial power of Germany.

Frederic Barbarossa (of Hohenstauffen), who ascended the throne of the empire in 1152, was travelling to Rome to receive coronation from the Pope. He was attended by a numerous train of nobles and soldiers; and the wary Adrian took care that the authority which he was about to consecrate, should be previously exerted in support of his insulted jurisdiction. The rebellious monk was demanded from his Inspector-the Viscount of Campania-in order to be tried for the alleged heresy. Frederic seems to have been nothing loth to issue his order to his vassal accordingly. Others, on the contrary, report that Arnaldo was captured by the injured Gerard. Such an arrest would, however, require the sanction of the imperial will. Of the ultimate fate of the defender of Roman freedom there is, unhappily, no doubt. He was hanged, his body burned, and his ashes scattered to the winds in the second year of Adrian's sovereignty.

But this piece of practically serviceable obedience to the papal wishes was not allowed to excuse the performance of an act of humiliation before the Father of the Church, with which the Emperor would rather have dispensed. It seemed an unnecessary degradation to be required to kiss the feet, to hold the stirrup, and to lead forth for nine paces, the palfry of a petty despot who had but just returned from virtual exile, and who owed his permanent security to the very prince from whom he now demanded this servile recognition of superiority. It looks too much like feudal homage instead of a mere token of respect for a spiritual dignity; and in no point was it so essential to the safety of the Empire to be scrupulously punctilious, as with regard to a possible inisunderstanding on this head. It resembled too much those pious frauds on which the Papal throne had been erected; perversions of innocent or unmeaning forms to justify the most outrageous assumptions of actual power. But Adrian would take no nay. The kiss of peace was refused till the Emperor should bring his mind to comply, at which the terrified cardinals, fearing the imperial displeasure, fled to Airta Castellana. But, finding, after a deliberation of two days, that this ceremony was nothing more than the established

H

custom, Frederic yielded the point, and the rival heads of Christendom proceeded peacefully to Rome.

mission, complimentary of course, like the first; but instead of admonition, there was humble entreaty, couched in a spirit unmistakeably worldly. The purport of the request was, that he might have the Pope's sanction for attempting the conquest of Ireland. The circumstances of that country were such as to make its actual subjugation an easy matter. It was rent by hostile factions, and those factions were composed, to a large extent, of undisciplined and "naked savages." To show the nature of the contest, we may note that a force of 10 knights and 90 archers, sent by Strongbow, utterly defeated an army of 3000 men under O'Phelan, and killed 800 of them; and this is only a specimen of the usual fortune of the field during the whole struggle. But a question of right had to be settled, and possibly the jealousy of neighbouring monarchs to be obviated by something

The advent of the new Emperor had aroused afresh the hopes of the republicans. The senate sent their ambassadors to Frederic, offering him the crown of the empire, but stipulating for a large sum in payment of the expense of the coronation, and requiring to be confirmed in an exclusive temporal auth rity over the city. "I come to give, and not to receive laws," was his reply. The Emperor took up his position on the north of the Tiber, in the more modern part of Rome; and the ceremony of coronation by the Pope immediately followed. The mass of the Roman people stood aloof in sullen indifference, which was soon changed to open hostility. As if to bring out in stronger relief the reassertion of ancient freedom against the combined force of nort ern despotism and the new super-like a plausible pretext. Ireland was stition, while Frederic's army surrounded not Pagan, else it might have been the Vatican, the senate and people held safely dealt with on the principle of counsel in the capitol. A sudden attack No faith with Infidels." Parts of the on the German soldiers resulted in a sister isle claimed to have been even sanguinary but indecisive combat. The centres of religious light to the British city continued in a disquieted condi-isles in a period of general darkness. tion, and the two sovereigns proceeded | Another plea must be recorded. Forto Tivoli, which the Emperor soon after-tunately for Henry's wishes, though wards quitted for the north of Italy Ireland was enrolled among

[ocr errors]

the isImmediately on Adrian's succession, lands enlightened by Christ”—as Adhis former sovereign, Henry II., hadrian's bull has it-it was not yet subdespatched that embassy, headed by the [ject and tributary to the see of Rome. Abbot of St. Alban's, to which we have It is the grand evil of sacerdotal relialready referred. Its mission was one of congratulation, and-risum teneatis! of ghostly admonition. The royal Mentor urged that, in conferring ecclesiastical honours, he should be guided by the purest motives! that no secular advantage should have the least weight with him and that, above all, since it had pleased God to raise him to the very summit of ecclesiastical dignity, he should be careful to glorify his office by cultivating a sublime spirituality in his own soul!

gionism, that it transfers the appeal, in questions of right and wrong, from the inflexible tribunal of God and conscience, to the corruptible arbitrament of one whose thoughts are as our thoughts, and his ways as our ways. There was little difficulty in bribing the court on this occasion; for the judge was to share in the plunder secured by the sentence. Adrian issued a comprehensive bull, in accordance with Henry's wishes; of which the following, cited in a work previously referred to, are some The Abbot had also to present the of the most characteristic sentences:good wishes of his monastery to their" Adrian, bishop, servant of the servants quondam servitor; and the well-timed compliment already mentioned was not unsuccessful. St. Alban's received the distinguished honour of being freed from all ecclesiastical jurisdiction, save that of Rome.

King Henry soon found occasion to test the result of his pious counsels. The year following, he sent another

of God, to his most dear son in Christ, the illustrious King of England, sendeth greeting and apostolical benediction.

We are confident that, by the blessing of God, the success will answer the wisdom and direction of the undertaking. You have advertised us, dear son, of your intended expedition into Ireland, to reduce that people to the

obedience of the Christian faith. . We, therefore, being willing to assist you in this pious and laudable design, and consenting to your petition, do grant you full liberty to make a descent upon that island, in order to enlarge the borders of the Church, &c., &c.; for, indeed, it is certain, as your highness acknowledges, that all the islands enlightened by Christ are essentially St. Peter's right, and belong to the Holy Roman Church." It was a stipulation that for every house in the newly acquired territory, Peter's pence should be duly paid; so that if England's part of the advantage were in any degree dubious, that of the Papal See was evident enough.

After such a recognition of ecclesiastical supremacy in secular matters outside his kingdom, Henry had no right to complain that he had to suffer, as well as to benefit by its assertion. Having availed himself of the dubious character of ecclesiastical rule against his neighbours, it ought not to have surprised him, that the double empire was troublesome to himself at home. When the King of France urged one of Adrian's successors "to draw St. Peter's sword against Henry, and to study some new and exemplary justice against him on account of his share in Thomas à Becket's death, and when, consequently, the morning of a second day found that monarch faint with Scourging and fasting at the tomb in Canterbury cathedral, we may hope that reason-if not conscience-reminded him of the folly of such iniquitous compacts.

But to return to Adrian. Scarcely had one controversy with Frederic been settled at least as far as appearances went than he hastened to involve himself in another. The pretensions of the papacy had become especially offensive to William, king of the Sicilies. The holy Father had even challenged from him feudal homage for his crown. He had insulted him by calling him merely "Lord of Sicily," in place of according to him his regal title. A war was the result, in which the papal forces were worsted. Excommunication naturally followed, and with the usual results. William submitted to vassalage and even tribute; and the Pope returned, laden with costly presents-silks, silver, and gold. He now took up his residence at Orvieto, and

probably hoped for an interval of peace. He had had enough for the present of those fierce struggles, which drew from him the exclamation-when reproved by his old friend John of Salisbury, for his tyrannous and haughty bearingThe crown seems to have been put burning on my head."

66

But in propitiating his more recent foe, he had only resuscitated the hostility of his more formidable rival. Frederic impeached his good faith on account of the independent treaty he had made with the King of Sicily; and also on the ground of negotiations entered into with the Greek emperor, in which he (Frederic) had not been called upon to participate. More serious indictments were not wanting. Adrian had had the audacity to call the imperial crown "a beneficium or fee of the see of Rome;" and to boast that Frederic had received his crown from him as his suzerain. That this implication far transcended the usual limits of papal assumption is evident from the feeling of indignation which it aroused even among the spiritual lords of the empire. The bishops joined their protest with that of their secular neighbours; and Adrian felt compelled to retract "in a letter full of miserable subterfuges and evasions."

Complaints of grievances were also forthcoming on the Pope's side. The Emperor had been sending commissioners to Rome to supersede his administration of justice. The patrimony of St. Peter was burdened with feudal tribute to the temporal sovereign. The territory and revenues of the Countess Matilda, of the duchy of Spoleto, and of Corsica and Sardinia, were kept back in spite of reclamation on behalf of the papacy.

A temporary lull, however, in the storm of contention ensued, soon to give way to fresh outbreaks; for the quarrel between the Popes and the House of Hohenstauffen ceased only with the extinction of the latter. Adrian's turbulent career of restless ambition was soon closed. He died at Avignon in the beginning of September, 1159. A few letters and homilies survived, testifying probably to a strength and cultivation of intellect which, in his public life, had only manifested themselves in serving the purposes of an unbridled desire of power. homilies, doubtless, enforced a doctrine

The

in every respect opposed to the example | former, if any, were so tarnished with of the preacher. an excess of pride, carried even into Whatever may be thought of the gross folly, that the verdict which_reacareer of Nicholas Breakspeare by mem- son must pronounce on the only Engbers of the Romish communion on the lishman that ever filled St. Peter's chair Continent, the subjects of British rule- is, that he did much to fill up that meawhether Catholic or Protestant-have sure of arrogance which has reduced small cause to remember him with any- the papacy from what it was in the thing like grateful emotions. He sanc- time of Adrian IV. to the condition it tioned and abetted an act of tyranny, presents under Pius IX. The name of whose consequences have been disas- the subject of this article may seem to trous to both. According to his own imply an hereditary pugnacity accomconfession, and by the testimony of panied by bravery and strength. These nearly all Catholic Europe in the are the only qualities for which he is twelfth century, his monument, if any, memorable. Should the papal chair should be one of warning, not of ad- ever be occupied by another Englishmiration. The above sketch has been man, may he prove a wiser and a betwritten rather with a desire to discover ter man than Nicholas Breakspeare. great, if not amiable qualities; but the

GEORGE CUVIER.

France. His father, having served forty years in a Swiss regiment, and having been rewarded for his bravery and good conduct with the cross of military merit (a decoration exclusively bestowed upon Protestant officers), was now devoting his time to the education of a young family. A soldier's halfpay is at all times small enough; but in the superior talents, the affection and the energy of his wife, the veteran found the resources his pecuniary means could not command. George was afflicted with a feeble and sickly constitution. Madame Cuvier watched over him, became his first teacher, directed the moral and religious training which is the necessary substratum of all future excellence; in short, thoroughly prepared him for the severe routine of a public school.

FRANCE has ever occupied a high stand- | the 23rd August, 1769, at Montbeliard, ing in the annals of science; and to a town then belonging to the duchy of prove this position we need only men- Wirtemberg, but since annexed to tion the names of Fermat, Roberval, D'Alembert, Pascal. But there is another fact no less striking, to wit, that Frenchmen have not always brought to their studies a mind devoid of prejudices and actuated by the spirit of impartiality. The whole history of the eighteenth century shows this most unquestionably; and the brilliant school of savans, who hoisted at that time the banner of materialism, whilst claiming very loudly the monopoly of candour, liberality, and independence, proved themselves, under the influence of a blighting infidelity, the greatest bigots in existence. Such were Condorcet, Destutt de Tracy, Lamarck, Cabanis, and the other members of the coterie, known by the name of the "Arcueil Society." A reaction, however, speedily set in; people found out that Christianity was not, after all, the worn-out, good-for-nothing system the "encyclopedists" reported it to be, and that neither the deductions of reason, nor the facts elicited by science, necessarily clashed with revealed truths. Amongst to the gymnasium, he had not only the illustrious men who brought about this happy result, first and foremost stands the subject of the present sketch. GEORGE LEOPOLD CHRÉTIEN FREDERICK DAGOBERT CUVIER was born on

Biographers have often noticed how much great men owe to maternal influence. The early days of young Cuvier illustrate this truth in a remarkable manner; and when his parents sent him

mastered the difficulties of Latin, drawing, and history, but, what is still more important, acquired a passion for reading and a desire to understand everything" the two liberal fountains," as

a reviewer happily expresses it, "from which his reason drew its materials, and his imagination its stores."

Long before the reform of public instruction in France, and the re-modelling of the university by Napoleon Bonaparte, some of the German princes had directed their attention to the momentous question of academical teaching. Seminaries were rising up in all quarters, and a new revival of learning seemed at hand. The Duke of Wirtemberg, following the general movement, founded at Stuttgard the Caroline Academy, an institution where a staff of more than eighty masters delivered lectures upon almost every branch of human knowledge. Law, medicine, administration, the military art, commerce, painting, sculpture, and music-such was the bill of fare. By his diligence at the gymnasium and the great success he obtained in his studies, George Cuvier attracted the notice of his sovereign. The Duke had a personal interview with the young man, and announced his intention of sending him to Stuttgard for the purpose of educating him free of expense.

"In the beginning of May, 1784," continues the reviewer, "he accordingly left his father's roof: seated between the chamberlain and secretary of the Duke, he travelled to the university, and at once took his place among the most distinguished students of the Caroline Academy." Some years before, the perusal of Gesner's history of animals, and of Buffon's great work, had already awakened in Cuvier's mind a taste for the study of Nature. He had begun to make observations for himself, to draw sketches from the books within his reach, and even to lecture to his schoolfellows on points connected with his favourite pursuits. At Stuttgard that taste ripened into a passion. He visited all the accessible cabinets of natural history, and commenced an herbarium arranged according to a classification of his own, following up at the same time the regular university studies so satisfactorily, that he carried off almost all the prizes, and obtained one of the orders of academical knighthood, which the Duke granted as a reward to the five or six most distinguished pupils.

Cuvier's admission at Stuttgard was an important step forward in his journey through life. Strange to say, the same place which the naturalist found to be

an alma mater full of gentle counsel and wholesome instruction-that same place offered to the dreamy poet nothing but the repulsive appearance of a military prison, where discipline nipped enthu siasm in the bud." Schiller had not yet left the Caroline Academy when Cuvier matriculated there. History does not tell us what impression the two young men produced upon each other, but they stand for us as the personification, the one of the real, the other of the ideal. The "Song of the Bell" and the 'Discourse on the Revolutions of the Globe" were in days to come to earn an immortal reputation for the two Stuttgard students. Cuvier made also the acquaintance of Sömmering, a person more according to his own heart, and who became in after life one of the most eminent entomologists in Europe.

[ocr errors]

Our hero could not any longer wear the uniform and "sport" the pig-tail which then distinguished the inmates of the Caroline. He had gone through the whole curriculum of studies, and was now apparently fully equipped for a struggle in quest of scientific fame. He began by accepting an engagement as tutor in a French nobleman's family, with the view both of increasing his slender means, and of improving himself. The Count de Héricy, to whom he had been recommended, gladly secured the services of so promising a young man, and took him to a château on the coast of Normandy, where Cuvier found an attentive pupil, the advantages of the best society, and the most ample field for botanical or zoological researches.

66

We must not forget under what cir cumstances Cuvier came to France. The emancipation of society which Schiller had preached by the mouth of Franz Moor seemed now to be a matter of fact. Old things" were fast" 'passing away," and the Assembly of the States General would soon inaugurate through the kingdom the reign of Liberty. Everybody knows how frightful the revolutionary progress was, proceeding irresistibly on over the mangled bodies of ten thousand victims, amidst the strains of the Marseillaise, till Liberty died of exhaustion in the arms of a lieutenant of artillery. Cuvier was providentially spared the scenes of misery so many had to go through, and whilst he spent the years 1788-1795 in studying the anatomy of the mollusca or

« AnteriorContinuar »