him as the hero of his famous historic romance, the Cyropædia. Taken for all in all, his claim to be entitled Cyrus the Great, as history has crowned him, remains unchallenged with time. The best short account of Cyrus, with abundant references, is that of Justi, in Geiger and Kuhn, Grundriss der iranischen Philologie (Strassburg, 1897). Consult also Duncker, History of Antiquity, Eng. trans. (London, 1881). Passing mention may be made of Horner, Daniel, Darius the Median, Cyrus the Great (Pittsburg, 1901). CYRUS THE YOUNGER (? -401 B.C.). The second of the sons of Darius Nothus, or Ochus, and Parysatis, familiarly known through Xenophon's Anabasis. When his elder brother, Artaxerxes Mnemon (q.v.), succeeded to the throne (B.C. 404), Cyrus conspired to deprive him of his crown and his life. The plot, however, being discovered, he was at first sentenced to death, but afterwards pardoned, through his mother's intervention, and was even restored to his dignity of satrap of Asia Minor. Here he employed himself in making arrangements for war against his brother, although he concealed his purposes to the very last. In the spring of B.C. 401 he left Sardis at the head of 100,000 Asiatics and 13,000 Greek mercenaries, under pretense of chastising the robbers of Pisidia. Artaxerxes, being warned of Cyrus's perfidy, made preparations to oppose him, and the two armies encountered each other in the Plains of Cunaxa, between 60 and 70 miles from Babylon. Cyrus was defeated and slain, although the Greeks fought with the greatest courage, and even routed that portion of Artaxerxes's troops immediately opposed to them. The fortunes of the Greeks, on their retreat through the highlands of Kurdistan and Armenia in severe winter weather, are recorded by Xenophon in his Anabasis (q.v.). That historian represents Cyrus the Younger as endowed with every amiable quality.

CYST (from Gk. KúσTis, kystis, bladder). A tumor containing one or more cavities, the contents of which are of a fluid or semi-fluid consistence. The cyst-wall is formed of connective and fibrous tissue, rarely of muscular fibres, and the inner surface of the cavity is lined with epithelium. Cysts are classified according to their mode of development. Some are found in glands and are due to an excess of the normal cell-secretion; others are caused by obstruction of the ducts through which the secretion naturally escapes. One class, known as dermoid cysts, are due to faulty embryonic development, and these at times contain hair, nails, or teeth. Occasionally solid tumors undergo cystic degeneration. Hydatid cysts are of parasitic origin, and occur most frequently in the liver. Besides these there are numerous other varieties depending upon the tissues in which they grow. Cysts vary from minute retention cysts on the face to the enormous tumors of the ovary, weighing over 100 pounds. Surgical interference is frequently required. See OVARIES; HYDATIDS.

CYSTICERCUS. See TAPEWORM. CYSTID ́EA. See CYSTOIDEA. CYSTIN (from Gk. Kúσris, kystis, bladder), CH12N2S2O4. An organic acid (amido-sulpholactic acid), allied to lactic acid and having the constitutional formula HOOC (NH2) (CH) C.S.S.C (CH) (NH2) COOH. It is the principal constituent of the urinary calculus known as

cystic calcuius, from which it may be obtained by dissolving in ammonia and allowing the solu tion to evaporate, the cystin separating out in the form of characteristic colorless crystals, which are insoluble in water, alcohol, or ether.

CYSTITIS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. KúσTis, kystis, bladder). Inflammation of the urinary bladtioned injuries, exposure to cold, injection of der. Among the causes of cystitis may be menirritating medicaments in treating the urethra, insertion of a dirty catheter when drawing off the urine, retention of fermenting urine, extension of inflammation from other adjacent tissues, or the presence of a calculus (q.v.). The inflam mation is accompanied by chills, fever, some nausea, pain in the bladder, and a continual desire to urinate. The urine is generally cloudy, from mucus and pus, or bloody. In treating cystitis, heat should be applied to the abdomen, or the patient should take a hot sitz-bath; he should take large quantities of alkaline drinks, and rest in bed. In many cases it is necessary to wash out the bladder, and a variety of drugs are used, according to the exact nature of the symptoms.

CYS/TOCARP (Gk. Kúσtis, kystis, bladder + κaρmós, karpos, fruit). A complex form of fructification developed in the red alge as a result of the sexual act. See RHODOPHYCEÆ; ALGE.

CYSTOI’DEA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Gk. KÚσTIS, kystis, bladder + elôos, eidos, form). A class of extinct echinoderms of the subphylum blastoids, but differing from these chiefly in the Pelmatozoa (q.v.), allied to the crinoids and irregular arrangement of the plates of the calyx and the imperfect development of their arms. In general appearance the Cystoidea resemble the crinoids, with the remains of which they are often found associated in the Ordovician and Silurian strata. The cystoid body was inclosed in a case or 'calyx' of variable form, spherical, cylindrical, hemispherical, or discoid, which is made up of polygonal calcareous plates without regular arrangement. The calyx-plates seem to have been, in many early genera, loosely united to each other, so that they became easily dissociated after death of the animal.

This ex

plains the rarity of perfect individuals in the Ordovician rocks, where the fragments are often exceedingly abundant. Another characteristic is the presence of pores that perforate the plates and that are arranged in rhombic series. These pores are supposed to have been connected with the respiratory apparatus. The number of plates in the calyx is very variable, from 10 or 12 to over 100, and as a rule those forms with the largest number of plates show the greatest irregularity in their arrangement. In some of the forms, with less number of plates, these are arranged in regular transverse rows, and the calyx then approaches more nearly the aspect of the simpler forms of crinoids.

The arms are absent in many genera of cystoids, and when present are seldom found attached to the calyx. They are never pinnulated like those of the crinoids, though they are composed in a similar manner, and are often supplied with grooves. In those cystoids without free arms there is generally found on the ventral surface of the calyx a system of ambulacral furrows that radiate irregularly from the mouth.

opening. These furrows, representing the arms, are bordered by rows of small plates that often bear pinnules of delicate construction, as seen in Callocystites, Glyptosphærites, and Agelacrinus. The more primitive cystoids have neither arms nor ambulacral furrows. The openings of the calyx are four in number. The mouth is central or subcentral on the upper or ventral surface; the anal opening is eccentric, and is generally closed by a pyramid of small, triangular plates; a third opening, often present near the anal opening and generally closed by triangular plates, is considered to be the genital orifice; and a fourth small, slit-like aperture, present in only a few genera, is of problematic nature. The calyx of the cystoid is usually elevated on a stem which often resembles that of the crinoid in being composed of a single series of plates pierced by a central canal. In some genera (as Dendrocystites) the stem is made up of plates arranged in transverse rows, and the central cavity is then much enlarged and continuous with the general cavity of the calyx. In Echinosphærites the stem is reduced to a tubercle on the dorsal surface, and the animal seems to have been a free living form. The discoid genera Agelacrinus and its allies are sessile, and are attached either by a pedestal or by cementation of the dorsal surface of the calyx to foreign objects, generally the shells of mollusks.

Classification of the Cystoidea is a matter of difficulty, not alone because of the general imperfection of the material, but also on account of the great diversity of structure seen within the class, which contains a number of synthetic or ancestral types that seem to have given rise to all the other more specialized groups of the Echinodermata. Through assumption of a more regular arrangement of the plates and the development of the arms, with consequent rearrangement of the ventral surface, as in Cryptoerinus, Porocrinus, and Caryocrinus, they gave rise to the Crinoidea. Reduction of the plates and enlargement of the ambulacral grooves, with the assumption of the pentameral gemmiform shape, as in Asteroblastus, leads to the Blastoidea. Agelacrinus is suggestive of the star-fish (Asteroidea) and brittle stars (Ophiuroidea), and finally the Echinoidea and Holothuroidea may be imagined to have been derived from the more spherical forms of armless cystoids, the echinoids presenting a series of progressive evolution, the holothurians a regressive series.

RANGE. The Cystoidea is the oldest known class of echinoderms; their isolated plates, rarely united to give a clue to the form of the animal, known under the names of Eocystites, Protocystites, etc., from the Cambrian rocks, are the earliest representatives. The class enjoyed two periods of expansion. First, in the early Ordovician time they flourished in hosts in some regions, their remains forming the larger part of certain limestones, such as the lower Chazy limestones of Lake Champlain. Other limestones, of Beekmantown and Trenton age, in the Saint Lawrence and Champlain valleys, and beds of equivalent age in the Baltic provinces of Europe, contain abundant cystoid remains. The second expansion of the class occurred during the Silurian time, when these creatures lived in abundance in some portions of the seas of northern and middle Europe and eastern North America. In all about 250 species are known,

and of this number only about 15 have been found in rocks above the Silurian system. The group entirely disappeared with the close of Paleozoic time.

Consult: Forbes, "On the Cystidea of the Silurian Rocks of the British Islands," Memoirs of the Geological Survey of Great Britain, vol. ii., part 2 (London, 1848); Billings, "On the Cystideæ of the Lower Silurian Rocks of Canada," Figures and Descriptions of Canadian Organic Remains, Decade III. (Montreal, 1858); Hall, "Descriptions of Some New Fossils from the Niagara Group," Twentieth Annual Report of the New York State Cabinet of Natural History (Albany, 1867); Barrande, "Cystidées," Système Silurien du Centre de la Bohême, vol. vii. (Prague and Paris, 1887); Bather, "The Cystidea," in Lankester's Treatise on Zoology, part iii., chap. ix. (London, 1900); von Zittel and Eastman, Textbook of Paleontology, vol. i. (London and New York, 1900). See CRINOIDEA; ECHINODERMATA; and articles on the other classes of echinoderms.

CYS/TOLITHS (Gk. KÚσTIs, kystis, bladder + Moos, lithos, stone). Masses of cellulose and calcium carbonate (the chief constituent of limestones), found in the cells of plants belonging to the families Urticaceae and Acanthacea. They are most common in the epidermis of both leaves and stems, but are found also in the cortex and pith. A single cystolith occupies a cell, nearly filling it, though the cell is enlarged. Cystoliths are irregularly warty or nodulated like a compact the cell in which it lies by a short stalk of cellu bunch of grapes. Each is attached to the wall of lose. In reality the cystolith is an outgrowth from the cell-wall, at first peg-shaped, later clubshaped, and finally warty. Its foundation substance is cellulose (the same as that of the tity of calcium carbonate in the form of very wall), which is impregnated with a large quanstalk often contains silica. The carbonate is to fine granules, thus forming a stony mass. The ical processes occurring in the plant, and is of be regarded as a waste product from the chemno further direct use. It can readily be dissolved out by weak acids, the process of solution being accompanied by effervescence and the evolution of carbonic-acid gas (carbon dioxide). Good examples of cystoliths are to be found in the leaves of nettles (Urtica) and of the fig (Ficus).

CY'TASE (from Gk. Kúros, kytos, cavity, cell). An enzyme that attacks the cell-walls of plants and alters the chemical composition of some of the components so that the walls swell up in water, become translucent, and finally dissolve. The process is one of digestion. It is not yet known whether what is called cytase is a single enzyme or several, no sufficient study having been possible. Cytase has been found in the hyphæ of various fungi which live as parasites in plants, destroying their tissues. It has also been identified in the seeds of many grasses, in which it is secreted chiefly by the 'gluten layer' (a layer of cells outside the starch-bearing ones), and in the seeds of certain Leguminosæ, palms, etc. In many seeds the reserve food is stored as cellulose in the form of thickened walls, making the food-bearing tissue, the endosperm (q.v.), of bony hardness-e.g. vegetable ivory, the seed of a palm (Phytelephas Indica). In this seed certainly, and probably in all such

seeds, cytase is produced at germination to digest the reserve cellulose and render it available as food for the growing embryo. Since the substances which take part in the formation of cell-walls are numerous and diverse, and their composition is still uncertain, no adequate knowledge has been obtained as to the products of their digestion by cytase.

From the cellulose constituents one or more

sugars are produced, possibly by hydrolysis, through dextrins. Cytase acts only on cellulose walls, being unable to attack lignified or cutinized walls. It acts most energetically in a weakly acid medium, but is destroyed by temperatures of 60 to 65° C. It may be obtained (mixed with diastase) from malt by the method described under DIASTASE (q.v.). See also ENZYMES; and DIGESTION.

CYTHE'RA. See CERIGO.
CYTHERE'A. See VENUS.

CYTHE RIS. A well-known Roman cour tesan, the mistress of Marcus Antonius and later of Gallus, the elegiac poet. She is referred to under the name of Lycoris in Vergil's tenth Eclogue.

CYT'ISUS (Lat., shrubby kind of clover). A genus of plants of the natural order Leguminosa, of which some of the species, having long twiggy branches, are popularly called broom, others are called laburnum, while others still are generally known by the name cytisus. The species are numerous-small trees or shrubs, with leaves of three leaflets, and yellow, white, or purple flowers, natives chiefly of the warmer temperate parts of the Old World. Many of them are very beautiful, and some are among the esteemed ornaments of our shrubberies, others of our greenhouses. Several species of Cytisus have been recommended as forage plants, stock readily browsing upon their green twigs. Cytisus scoparius, the Scotch broom, is a form so valued, while Cytisus proliferus alba, the tagasaste of the Canary Islands, is highly commended. Trials of it in California have not substantiated the rather extravagant claims made for it.

CYTOLOGY (Gk. Kúros, kytos, cell + Xoyla, logia, account, from Xéya, legein, to say). A branch of the sciences of botany and zoology. As histology is largely concerned with tissues, so cytology deals principally with cells, the elements which make up the tissues. Although it is only recently that botanists have begun to make a specialty of this subject, the work has been prosecuted with great vigor and the subject is beginning to assume some definiteness. chief problems at present are the structure and activities of protoplasm, the life history of plastids, the structure and function of the nucleus, the reduction of chromosomes, the origin and development of the achromatic figure, the centrosome, the cell-wall, the development of the sex cells, fertilization and the formation of the embryo, and, most difficult of all, the problem of heredity.

The

BOTANICAL CYTOLOGY. As yet little is known regarding the structure of protoplasm in plants, but the investigations which have been made favor the assumption that its structure is identical with that in animals. Much more attention has been paid to the nucleus. Even the small nuclei of many of the alga and fungi have been

studied, and the details of their structure and mode of division quite accurately determined. No organ of the cell has been so assiduously investigated as the chromosome, but nevertheless most of its important problems remain to be solved. The fact that the number of chromosomes is constant for a given species, and the phenomena of fertilization indicate that the chromosome is a permanent organ of the cell, but its life history from one cell generation to another has not yet been traced, the identity of the several chromosomes being lost in the resting nucleus. In the flowering plants the splitting of the chromosomes during nuclear division is generally conceded to be longitudinal in all cells except spore-producing cells in which the reduction of the chromosomes is taking place, and even here most botanists believe that the splitting is longitudinal, although a transverse splitting, i.e. a reducing division in the sense of the Weissman school, has been reported by investigators of undoubted ability. Both observations and theories are still very conflicting. The origin and development of the achromatic figure have received large attention, especially since the beginning of the present century. It was formerly supposed that the achromatic figure always rose cent observations have made it very doubtful under the influence of the centrosomes, but rewhether a centrosome exists at all in the angiosperms, and it is almost equally doubtful whether such an organ exists in the gymnosperms and trosomelike body which develops the cilia of the pteridophytes, unless the "blepharoplast," a cenmale cell, be interpreted as a genuine centrosome. In the other groups, except the mosses, which have received scant attention, an undoubted centrosome has been demonstrated.

The development of the sex cells, from the time of fertilization, has been repeatedly studied earliest appearance of the archesporium up to the in various plants, but the work has been morphological rather than cytological, little attention having been paid to the details of cell constudy of cells more immediately concerned in tents except in case of mother cells. In the fertilization, the cells of the sporogenous tissue have been slighted. Some of the most important cytological work deals with the problems of fertilization. The question of sexuality in the Ascomycetes has received a definite answer in the case of several forms by the demonstration of an actual process of fertilization. The fusion of the sex nuclei in ferns has been described with more or less completeness. In the gymnosperms, where the sex cells are extremely large, the process of fertilization has been more satisfactorily investigated, and it has been found that both the nucleus and the cytoplasm of the male cell enter the egg, but that the nucleus slips out from its cytoplasmic mantle before it reaches the nucleus of the egg. The male nucleus with its nuclear membrane still intact is then received bodily into the much larger egg nucleus. The chromatin of the two nuclei in the form of two distinct spirems has been observed, and it has been suggested that the chromatins of the two nuclei may remain distinct during the later stages of fertilization, and even during the cell divisions which follow. In the angiosperms, while the union of the sex nuclei has been repeatedly observed, the behavior of the chromatin is practically unknown. Two male cells are dis

charged from the pollen-tube into the embryosac; the nucleus of one of these cells unites with the nucleus of the egg and the first cell of the sporophyte is formed. It has recently been found that the second male cell often unites with the definite nucleus of the embryo-sac formed by the fusion of the two polar nuclei, so that there is a 'double fertilization.' Double fertilization has been observed in monocotyledons and dicotyledons, but whether it is the usual method of fertilization is not entirely settled. While it is becoming conceded that the problems of heredity must be ultimately problems of the cell, nearly all the work of botanists along this line must be classed as morphological. See CELL (in plants); EMBRYOLOGY; SEX.

CYTOPLASM. See CELL (in plants).

CYZ/ICUS (Lat., from Gk. Kútikos, Kyzikos) A colony of Miletus in the Propontis, founded probably about B.C. 676, on the south shore of the island of Arctonnesus, which has now become a peninsula, though in ancient times it was connected with the mainland by bridges. Its situation and two good harbors made it early a prosperous town, while its strong position enabled it to maintain its freedom. It was favored by the Romans, and after sustaining a long siege by Mithridates it was made a free city, a privilege which it lost under Tiberius. The site is still covered with extensive ruins. It lies to the southeast of the island of Marmora, and about 70 miles southwest of Constantinople.

CZACKI, chäts'kê, TADEUSZ, Count (17651813). A Polish writer. He was born at Poryck, Volhynia. At twenty he obtained an office in the Superior Court of Justice at Warsaw, and in 1788 was appointed to the Treasury Commission of the Diet. His interest in the economic welfare of his country impelled him to travel through Poland and to produce a map of its river system. The development of navigation on the Dniester engaged his particular attention. When his prop. erty was confiscated at the second partition of Poland he became a professor at Cracow; but Paul I., to whose coronation he went as deputy from Volhynia, restored what he had lost. After this Czacki's whole life was devoted to the education of his countrymen. His plans for disseminating instruction in the Polish provinces of Russia, the people of which were extremely ignorant, met with the approval of Alexander I., and in 1803 he was made inspector of the schools in the governments of Volhynia, Podolia, and Kiev. He gave, out of his various resources, about 500,000 thalers to various schools. The Gymnasium of Kremenetz, which he founded, was the main object of his care. For a generation this institution was the spiritual centre of Poland, furnishing the champions of national self-consciousness against the deadening influence of French pseudo-classicism. Accused of stirring up political discontent among his countrymen, Czacki went to Saint Petersburg in 1807, and so ably defended himself that Alexander I. appointed him deputy of Prince Czartoryski, who was curator of public instruction in the Polish section of Russia. Czacki died at Dubno, and his collections passed into the hands of Czartoryski. His works were published in three volumes (Posen, 1843). They are in the main historical and archæological. His most valuable work is a trea

tise On Lithuanian and Polish Laws (2 vols., Warsaw, 1800).

CZAJKOWSKI, chi-kov'ske, MICHAL (180886). A Polish novelist. He was born near Berditchev in the Ukraine, where, in 1831, he participated in the insurrection against Russia, and was compelled to flee to Paris. In 1840 a number of Polish émigrés sent him on a secret mission to Turkey, and in 1851 he embraced Mohammedanism. As Mohammed Sadik he commanded a body of troops called the Cossacks of the Sultan. He fought with distinction against the Russians in 1853-54. Amnestied by Russia in 1873, he removed to Kiev. In consequence of an accusation of treason subsequently made against him, he committed suicide. Czajkowski obtained wide celebrity through his stories of Cossack life, several of which have become extremely popular and have been translated into German, French, and English.

CZAR, zär (Russ. tsari, Bohem. tsar, OChurch Slav. tsésari, tsusaru, through OHG. keisar, from Lat. Cæsar). The alternative title of the Russian Emperor; also written TSAR. During the Middle Ages the Emperor of the East and the Mongol Khans appear under the title of Czars in Russian contemporary literature, while the rulers of the various Russian provinces are called grand dukes till the sixteenth century. In 1547, however, Ivan the Terrible caused himself to be solemnly crowned Czar of Moscow. From this time the Russian monarchs called themselves by this title until the conquest of Little Russia and Smolensk caused them to assume that of Czar of All the Russias. The word now became practically the equivalent of Emperor; yet Peter I., in 1724, thought fit to assume this latter title in addition, and as the Russian language had no term corresponding to it, the Latin word Imperator was introduced, while the Empress was termed Imperatritsa. At first several European powers refused to sanction the assumption of imperial dignity by the Russian Czar, but ultimately consented to do so. The wife of the Czar was named Czaritsa (Czarina); the sons, Czarevitch; the daughters, Czarevna; but after the death of Alexis, Peter I.'s son, these titles were abolished, and the imperial princes were called grand dukes and the imperial princesses grand duchesses. In 1799 the Emperor Paul I. introduced the title of Cesarevitch (not Czarevitch) for his second son, the Grand Duke Constantine. The heir apparent and his wife are still called Cesarevitch and Cesarevna. Among the Russian people themselves, the Emperor is more frequently called Gosudar, i.e. lord, than Czar. See RUSSIA.

CZARNIECKI, or CZARNECKI, chärnyětské, STEFAN (1599-1665). A Polish general. He was distinguished by his bravery and brilliant generalship in the war against Charles X. of Sweden (1655-60), upon the conclusion of which he was hailed as the liberator of his country, which, simultaneously with the great onslaught of the Scandinavians, had been assailed by the Russians and Transylvanians. He also won laurels in the war against the Cossacks (1660-61), successively defeating them in two great battles. He had attained the highest rank in the Polish army when, attended by only a few horsemen, he undertook an expedition to the Crimea, in order to secure an alliance with the Tatars. In conse

quence of the fatigue and exposure of this journey he died at a village in Volhynia. He has been styled the Polish Du Guesclin.

some

CZARTORYSKI, chär’-tô-ris’kê, ADAM JERZY (George), Prince (1770-1861). A Polish patriot, born at Warsaw, January 14, 1770. He was the son of Prince Adam Casimir Czartoryski, the head of an ancient Polish house. After studying in Edinburgh and London, he returned to his native country and took part against Russia in the war following the second partition of Poland, in 1793. On the defeat of the Poles, Czartoryski was taken to Saint Petersburg as a hostage, and here he exhibited so much ability and prudence as to gain the friendship of the Grand Duke Alexander, and the confidence of Emperor Paul, who made him ambassador to Sardinia. When Alexander ascended the throne (1801) he appointed Czartoryski assistant to the Minister of Foreign Affairs; and he took an active part in official life until after the peace of Tilsit (1807). As curator of the University of Vilna he exerted all his influence to keep alive a spirit of nationality among the Poles, and when of the students were arrested on a charge of sedition and sent to Siberia, Czartoryski resigned his office. His successor reported to the Emperor that the amalgamation of Russia and Lithuania had been delayed a century by Czartoryski's activity as head of the university. When the Revolution of 1830 broke out, he threw in his lot with his countrymen. He was elected president of the provisional Government, and in this capacity summoned a national diet, which met in January, 1831, and declared the Polish throne vacant, and elected Czartoryski head of the National Government. He immediately devoted half of his large estates to the public service, and adopted energetic measures to meet the Russian invasion. The Poles were soon crushed by superior numbers, and Czartoryski-specially excluded from the general amnesty, and his estates in Poland confiscated-escaped to Paris, where he afterwards resided, the friend of his poor expatriated countrymen, and the centre of their hopes of a revived nationality. In 1848 he liberated all the serfs on his Galician estates, and during the Crimean War he ineffectually endeavored to induce the Allies to identify the cause of Poland with that of Turkey. He refused an amnesty offered to him by Alexander II., and died in Paris, July 16, 1861. Consult his Mémoires et correspondance avec l'empereur Alexandre Ier (Paris, 1887; English translation, Sielgerd (London, 1888); Morfill, Story of Poland, in "Stories of the Nations" series (London, 1893).

See POLAND.

CZASLAU, chäs'lou, Bohem. pron. chäs'läv. A town of Bohemia, about 40 miles east-southeast of Prague (Map: Austria, D 2). The Church of Saint Peter and Saint Paul was the place of burial of the blind Hussite leader Ziska, a fine statue of whom adorns one of the public squares. The town's manufactures include beet-sugar, alcohol, and beer. Between Czaslau and the neighboring village of Chotusitz the Prussians under Frederick the Great gained a decisive victory over the Austrians under Charles of Lorraine, May 17, 1742. Population, in 1890, 8145; in 1900, 9105, mostly Czechs.

CZECH (chěk) or BOHEMIAN LANGUAGE. The Czech language, like the Polish,

Kashubian, and Sorbian, belongs to the northwestern group of the Slavic languages (q.v.). The number of persons speaking Czech, exclusive Of these of the Slovaks, is about 6,000,000. 3,650,000 are found in Bohemia, 1,550,000 in Moravia, 130,000 in Austrian Silesia, 300,000 in other Austro-Hungarian provinces, 30,000 in Russia, 100,000 in Germany, and 250,000 in America. The Czechs occupy the quadrangle bounded by the Bohemian Forest, the Erzgebirge, the Sudetic Mountains, and the Little Carpathians. They are thus surrounded on three sides by Germans, and only on the eastern side do the Czechs come in contact with Slavs: in Silesia with the Poles, and in southeastern Moravia and Hungary with the Slovaks, their nearest kindred, with whom the Czechs are usually grouped into the CzechoSlovakian division. Within the quadrangle the Czechs are interspersed with Germans, against whom they have maintained a continuous struggle. (See CZECH LITERATURE.) Literary Czech is most nearly related to the dialect of the Prague district, but taken as a whole the Czech language presents a great variety of well-defined dialects.

The first mention of the existence of Czech

dialects is found in Jan Blahoslav's Grammar (1571), published by Jireček in 1857. The Slavic alphabets used in the earliest times were superseded by the Roman characters on the establishment of Roman Catholicism instead of the earlier Greek Orthodox faith. The Latin alphabet was insufficient to reproduce all the native sounds, and diacritical letters were introduced. Thus, č= Engl. ch, ž Engl. zh (as in pleasure). = sh, while the acute accent is used to denote long vowels. Among the phonetic characteristics of the language may be noted: (1) Disappearance of the old Slavic sounds u, i, and their transition into e: Old Church Slavic sunů, sleep, dini, day, livů, lion, liva (id., gen. sing.) = Czech sen, den, lev, lva. (2) Substitution of open sounds u, ú and a, e, e for the old Slavic nasal vowels a ande: muka, torture, nesu, I carry = Old Church Slavic maka, nesa; patero, five, deset, older desět, ten-Old Church Slavic petero, deseti. (3) The so-called transvocalization, whereby a becomes ě (e), á, ie (é, í): zeme, land, for zemia, duše, soul, for *dušia, while u, ú=iu, iú, become i, i: duši for *dušu (acc. sing., cp. Russian dushu), duši for dušú (abl. sing., cp. Russian dushoyu), lid for *lud, people (Russian lyud). (4) The obliteration of distinction between y (Engl. ) and i (Engl. ) in pronunciation: býk, bull, mýš, mouse, sýr, cheese, are pronounced as if spelled bik, miš, sir; byl, I was, and bil, I beat, are pronounced precisely alike. (5) Syllabic or vocalic r, l, m, n: zrno, grain, srdce, heart, vlna, wave, wool, slny, strong, silniy; Rožmberg Licmburk, represent German correspond to Russian zerno, serdtse, volna, Rosenberg, Luxemburg. This peculiarity is com

mon also to the Slovakian and Serbo-Horvatan (Serbo-Croat). (6) Long and short vowels: The primary accent is expiratory or stressed, and Short, a, e, i, o, u, y; long, á, é, í, ó, ú, ý. (7) is always on the first syllable of the word, as in Slovakian, Serbo-Lusatian, and South Kashubian. velopment of the primitive Slavic free accent. This accent has been proved to be an historical de

See SLAVIC LANGUAGES.

The quantitative system of versification based on the Latin has been almost entirely superseded of late by the tonic system-more proper