hesive. The stamens exhibit a number of peculiarities, in some cases having bilocular anthers; in others various modifications are shown, the anthers adhering in some and even becoming united into a column with two ring-shaped pollen - chambers in the genus Cyclanthera. The fruit, called a pepo, is peculiar; is more or less succulent, has a fleshy rind, and the seed-bearing placentæ either surround a central cavity or send prolongations into it. The seeds are flat, and more or less imbedded in the pulp, which may be dry or juicy. The cotyledons are large and leaf-like. This order contains nearly 90 genera, with about 650 species, many of which produce edible fruits and are cultivated in temperate regions. To this order belong the cucumber, melon, gourd, pumpkin, squash, vegetable marrow, etc. (qq.v.). In some, important medicinal properties abound, as in bryony, colocynth, momordica, etc. (qq.v.). Telfairia pedata, a tropical African species, is cultivated for its seeds, which are used for food, and from which oil is expressed. The chief genera are Fevillea, Telfairia, Melothria, Luffa, Byronia, Cucumis, Lagenaria, Cucurbita, Echinocystis, Sicyos, Sechium, and Cyclanthera.

CÚCUTA, kōo'koo-tà. See SAN JOSÉ DE CÚCUTA.

CUDBEAR. See ARCHIL.

CUDDALORE, kŭd'då-lôr', or KUDALUR, kŭd'à-loor'. The chief town in the southern division of Arcot, Madras, British India, on the estuary of the Southern Pennar, 15 miles south of Pondicherry and 100 south of Madras by rail (Map: India, D 6). The river, obstructed by a bar, admits only vessels of moderate size; but there is good anchorage a mile and a half off shore. There are a number of sugar-refineries, oilpresses, and paper-mills, and an extensive export trade in cotton and grain. Cuddalore was the scene of exciting struggles between the French and the English from 1758 to 1795, when it was finally acquired by the latter. Population, in 1891, 47,400; in 1901, 52,216.

CUDDAPAH, kŭd'då-pä'. See KADAPA. CUD'DY. In Spenser's Shepherd's Calendar, the shepherd to whom Colin Clout directs his arguments.

CUDILLERO, koo'dê-lya'rô. A maritime town in the Province of Oviedo, Spain, 20 miles northwest of the city of Oviedo. The harbor, protected by a jetty, has a lighthouse which marks its eastern point. It admits, however, only small craft. The port is engaged largely in fishing, and there are fish-curing establishments and manufactures of linen and chocolate; stockraising and agriculture also are carried on, and in the vicinity are mines of manganese. Population, in 1900 (commune), 10,160.

CUDRAKA, shoo'drå-kå. The reputed author of the Sanskrit drama Mricchakatika (q.v.). See SODRAKA.

CUD/WORTH, RALPH (1617-88). An English theologian and philosopher. He was born at Aller, in Somersetshire, and admitted pensioner of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, in 1632, where he took his degree of M.A. and became an eminent tutor. In 1645 he was appointed master of Clare Hall and regius professor of Hebrew; in 1654 he was chosen master of Christ's College; in 1662 appointed to the rec

tory of Ashwell; and in 1678 installed prebendary of Gloucester. He died at Christ's College. Cudworth's chief work, entitled The True Intellectual System of the Universe (1678), advocates a Platonizing doctrine of philosophy, especially emphasizing the necessity of a teleological view, against the contention of the mechanists of the day, and defending the doctrine of innate ideas. From such views the remarkable group of which he was a leader obtained the name of the Cambridge Platonists (q.v.). A Treatise Concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality, which was first published by Dr. Chandler, Bishop of Durham, in 1731, champions the innate character of our moral ideas, which are held to cognize the objective reality of good and evil with the same immediateness and certainty which attends our geometrical knowledge. Consult: Martineau, Types of Ethical Theory, vol. ii. (Oxford, 1898); Lowrey, The Philosophy of Ralph Cudworth (New York, 1885); and Birch, Life, in the edition of Cudworth's works (Oxford and London, 1829).

CUENCA, kwân'kå. Province of Azuay, Ecuador, situated on the Rio The capital of the Matadero. 8640 feet above the level of the sea, 85 miles south-southwest of Quito (Map: Ecuador, B 4). It has straight streets, and contains, among the chief buildings, the cathedral, the high school (formerly a Jesuit college), the prison, and the Government building. It is the centre of a fertile grain, cotton, sugar, and cochineal producing region, and rich metal deposits are worked in the neighborhood. The most important manufactures are pottery, hats, and woolens, and a considerable trade in preserved fruits, cheese, and grain is carried on. Population, about 30,000. Cuenca was founded in 1557, on the site of the old native village Tumibamba, and in 1786 was created an episcopal see. There are numerous remains in the vicinity. The mountain of Tarqui on the south was chosen in 1742 for determining the meridian line of La Condamine, Bouguer, and Godin. At the base of the mountain occurred the battle of Tarqui in 1828 between the Colombian and Peruvian forces.

interesting Aztec

CUENCA. A city of Spain, the capital name and the of the province of the same seat of a bishopric, about midway between Valencia and Madrid (Map: Spain, D 2). It is picturesquely situated, at an elevation of about 3000 feet, on the river Júcar, at the confluence of the Huescar, and is poorly built, with narrow, crooked streets. The walls are in ruins, and the city, once celebrated for industry and art, but faintly suggests its former prosperity. A fine bridge spans the Júcar, and there are a college and several notable churches, the most pretentious of which is the Gothic Cathedral, with the Chapel of the Albornoces. The city has some manufacturing interests, and a trade in lumber and wine. Population, in 1901, 10,505.

Cuenca first appears in the history of the ninth century, under Saracen power. In 1177, after a long siege, it fell into Christian hands, though earlier in the century it had been captured, but retaken. It was granted the dignity of a municipality in 1257. The city was taken by the English in 1706 after bombardment, and in 1808 and 1810 was sacked and burned by the French-disasters which contributed materially

to its decline. In 1874 Cuenca fell into the power of the Carlists, who ravaged the city, infuriated by its stubborn resistance.

CUERNAVACA, kwâr'nå-vä'kä. The capital of the State of Morelos, Mexico, magnificently situated in the valley of the Cuernavaca, 47 miles south of Mexico City, and 5000 feet above sea-level (Map: Mexico, J 8). It contains a church built by Cortés, an agricultural academy, a fine Government building, a theatre (with a capacity for 2000 spectators), a hospital, and a literary institute. The city is the centre of a fertile district, and has extensive sugar-refineries and distilleries. Near by are the ruins of an Aztec temple, 400 feet high, composed of five terraces. Cuernavaca, at the advent of the Spaniards, was an old Indian village, and became, after its capture, the favorite residence of Cortés, his palace being still extant. In 1863 Maximilian made it his residence. It bears many marks of his royal favor, especially in its public gardens. Population, in 1895, 8747; in 1900, 9584.

CUERO, kwā'rð. A town and the countyseat of Dewitt County, Tex., 101 miles east-southeast of San Antonio; on the San Antonio and Aransas Pass and the Southern Pacific railroads (Map: Texas, F 5). It is in a rich agricultural belt, producing corn, rice, truck, and cotton, and has cotton gins and compresses, a cotton-mill, cottonseed-oil mills, machine-shops, a tannery, broom-factories, a creamery, etc. Population, 1900, 3422; 1906 (local est.), 4200.

CUERVO, kwâr'vo, José RUFINO (1844-). A Spanish-American author, born at Bogotá, Colombia. He has made his home in Paris. He

became an authority on the Spanish language, on which subject he published: Apuntaciones criticas sobre la lengua Bogotana (1872), and a critical edition of the Grámatica Castellana of Andrés Bello (1890).

CUESTAS, kwa'stås, JUAN LISBOA (18371905). A South American politician and a President of Uruguay, born at Paysandú. In 1879 he became collector of customs, in 1880 Secretary of the Treasury, in 1886 Secretary of State, and in 1891 Senator for Paysandú. He was appointed president of the Senate in 1897; in 1898, after the assassination of President Borda, was placed in charge of the provisional Government; and from 1899 to 1903 was President of the Republic. CUEVA, kwāʼvå, HENRIQUEZ ARIAS DE SAAVEDRA, BALTAZAR DE LA (1626-86). A Spanish statesman. He was born in Madrid, and was a son of the Duke of Albuquerque. He was educat ed at the University of Salamanca, and successively became Councilor of State, Councilor of the Indies, Ambassador to Germany, and Viceroy of Peru, Tierra Firma, and Chile, in which capacity he introduced many beneficent reforms and greatly improved the condition of the

Indians.

CUEVA, JUAN DE LA (1550-1607). A Spanish poet, born in Seville. Of the life of this poet very little is known. He left a quantity of works, in the form of plays, poems, letters, epigrams, romances, and histories. The plays are of the most value, as in them he departed from the classic model, and attempted a more romantic and less artificial type.

CUEVAS DE VERA, kwā'vàs dâ vā'rå. A town of Spain, in the Province of Almería, 42 miles northeast of Almería (Map: Spain, D 4). It is situated in a plain on the right bank of

the Almanzor, near its entrance into the Mediterranean, and is generally well built, with broad and regular streets. It has two spacious plazas, and among the principal edifices are the Incarnation, a handsome Doric structure, an old Moorish castle and the parish Church of dating from 1758. A large number of persons are employed in the silver-mines of the vicinity; agriculture and stock-raising are also important industries. There are some manufactures, principally of pottery. Population, in 1890, 20,341; in 1900, 20,603.

CUFA, kōō'få. A ruined city of Mesopotamia, in the Turkish Vilayet of Bagdad. It was founded by the Arab conquerors of Persia soon after the decisive battle of Cadesia in 636, and speedily became the political and intellectual capital of the early Caliphate. At the height of its prosperity it numbered from 150,000 to 200,000 inhabitants, for the most part of the pure Arab stock of Yemen. The schools of Cufa exercised the very greatest influence on the development of Arabian literature and theology, and its grammarians were the originators of the so-called Cufan script, which occurs frequently in Arabic moval of the capital to Damascus brought about manuscripts. the decline of the city.

Internal dissensions and the re

CUFFE, WILLIAM ULICK O'CONNOR. See DESART, FOURTH EARL OF.

CUF FEE, PAUL (1759-1818). An American sea-captain, half Indian, half negro, born near New Bedford, Mass. He was a member of the Society of Friends, and used his wealth, acquired at sea, in the effort to encourage the colonization of his people in Sierra Leone. He carried out thirty-eight colonists on his own ship in 1815, and died while waiting for permission from Eng. land to make further settlements in the colony.

CUF FEY. A name formerly given to negroes in the West Indies, and common among the maroons of Jamaica.

CU'FIC WRITING. See KUFIC WRITING. CUI, kû'ê', CÉSAR ANTONOVITCH (1835-). A Russian composer and military engineer, born at Vilna. He studied at the gymnasium, where his father, a survivor of Napoleon's army of invasion, taught French. After studying music with Moniuszko (q.v.) for some six months at Vilna, he entered the School of Engineering and the Engineering Academy at Saint Petersburg, becoming subsequently professor of fortification in have been several grand dukes, the famous several military academies. Among his pupils Skobeleff, and Nicholas II. During the Russo

Turkish War he was sent to examine the forti

fications on the Danube. His report, Tour Notes of an Engineering Officer from the Theatre of Military Operations in European Turkey, was translated into several languages, and attracted considerable attention. Among his text-books the best-known are: A Short Manual of Field Fortification (7th ed. 1894), and A Short Historical Sketch of Permanent Fortification (1889). His musical studies he continued with Balakireff (q.v.), making his début with a Scherzo in F major for orchestra (1859).

His opera The Prisoner of Caucasus (1857-58) and the comic opera The Mandarin's Son were performed privately, and exhibited no departures from established tradition. In 1864 he became musical critic of the Saint Petersburg Gazette. He championed the theories of the Young Russian school, attacking the conservative attitude of the critics, rejudging estab lished reputations, subjecting everything to a keen and searching analysis. He received the nickname Musical Nihilist,' and his opera William Ratcliff (1869), based on Heine's drama, and embodying the new theories of 'melodic recitative,' met with severe criticism. Angelo (1876), based on Victor Hugo's drama, carried the theories even further, and met with a similar fate. In 1883 he rewrote The Prisoner of Caucasus, adding a new act, and the work had considerable success. Le Flibustier (1894), words by Richepin, was successful at the Paris Opéra Comique, and The Saracen was favorably received in 1899. His numerous songs, both to Russian and to French words, are veritable gems, while his pieces for solo instruments and for chorus enjoy great vogue. He was never fond of orchestration, and is far behind his Russian colleagues in that line, but the sincerity and passion of his works are unique. Few can equal him in delineating love in all its varied aspects. As a critic, in Russian periodicals and the French Revue et Gazette Musicale, Cui enjoys an enviable reputation. His La Musique en Russie (Paris, 1880) is the only sketch of Russian music written with authority, even though it is at times marred by the author's æsthetic views. The Russian Lied (1896) is a detailed study of all important Russian song-writers, with careful reference to both music and text. Consult: Countess de MercyArgenteau, César Cui (Paris, 1888); Pougin, Essai historique sur la musique en Russie (Turin, 1897).

CUIRASS, kwê-ras' or kwe- (Fr. cuirasse, from ML. coratium, breastplate, from Lat. coriaceus, leathern, from corium, leather). Originally a jerkin, or garment of leather for soldiers, so thick and strong as to be pistol-proof, and even musket-proof. The name was afterwards applied to a portion of armor made of metal, consisting of a backplate and a breastplate hooked or buckled together, with a piece joined to the back called a culet or garde de reines. For illustration, see ARMOR.

CUIRASSIER, kwē'rås-sēr' (Fr., from cuirasse, cuirass). In modern armies, the name given to certain soldiers of heavy cavalry. They are survivals of the troopers of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, who wore helmet and cuirass. There are four regiments of cuirassiers in the Russian Army, and twelve regiments each in the German and French armies. (For illustration, see Plate of ARMOR.) The Russian cuirass is of iron, coated with copper, and weighs 30 pounds; the German is of white metal with a brass plate, and the French of steel with a brass plate, their respective weights being 13% and 16 pounds. There are no cuirassiers in the British Army, although the Life Guards and Royal Horse Guards wear dress cuirasses of steel, costing £3 6s. each, which are discarded on active service. In the time of Queen Mary there were heavy horsemen known as cuirassiers, who wore

body armor over buff coats. They carried swords and pistols, and their reins were strengthened with iron chains. The bodyguard of Napoleon III., Les Cent-Gardes, wore aluminum cuirasses. No cuirass is bullet-proof against a direct shot. See CAVALRY, where an historical sketch of mounted troops is given.

CUISSART, kwê-särt' (OF., from cuisse, thigh, from Lat. coxa, hip). A variety of ansisted of small strips of iron plate laid horizoncient armor worn by troopers. Cuissarts contally over each other round the thigh and riveted together.

CUITLAHUATZIN, kwēt-lå-wät-sēn', or CITLAHUATZIN (1470-1520). An Aztec prince, younger brother of Montezuma II. When the latter was seized by the Spaniards, Cuitlahuatzin was also for some time in their hands, but was ultimately released. As the acknowledged leader of the Aztecs after the capture of Montezuma, he led the famous attacks upon the He also directed the operaarmy of Cortés. tions of the Aztecs during the retreat of the Spaniards to the coast. He was afterwards elected to succeed Montezuma, but died of a pestilence after his installation, and was succeeded by Guatemotzin.

CUJA'CIUS, properly JACQUES DE CUJAS, zhåk de ku'zhä', or CUJAUS, ku̟'zho' (1522-90). A French jurist of the sixteenth century. After studying law, he was appointed teacher of the law at Cahors (1554), and in the following year, on the recommendation of the Chancellor L'Hôpital, gained the chair of law in the University of Bourges, after which he taught successively at Valence, again at Bourges, at Valence, at Paris, and at Bourges, at which last place he resided from 1577 till his death, October 4, 1590. He was one of the most eminent jurists of his day, and his learning was founded on the most diligent study of original manuscripts of the Roman laws. His treatment of these authorities and of the feudal system was classical and reconstructive, free from scholastic subtleties. He had in his library 500 manuscripts on Roman law, and by his emendations contributed greatly to remove the obscurities of jurisprudence. A complete collection of his works was edited by Fabrot (10 vols.), at Paris (1658), and reprinted at Venice (175883), and at Prato (1834-43). Uhl has edited separately Cujacius's Animadversiones et Observationes. Consult: Spangenberg, Cujacius und seine Zeitgenossen (Leipzig, 1882); Berriat Saint Prix, Histoire du droit romain; Histoire de Cujas (1821).

CULÁMAN, kōo-lä'mån. See MANOBO.

CULASI, kōō-lä'sê. A town of Panay, Philippines, in the Province of Antique, situated on the western coast, about 52 miles north of San José de Buenavista. Rice, cacao, fruits, and pepper are cultivated. Population, in 1903,

10,966.

CUL'DEES (OIr. ceilede, servant of God, from ceile, servant + De, gen. sg. of Dia, God). Anchorite monks who came into Scotland from Ireland in the eighth and ninth centuries, and established themselves in many places, but who in the thirteenth century had been absorbed by the regular Orders, particularly that of Saint Augustine. Their monasteries, which, on the Co

1827), by whom also a life was commenced, the first volume of which was published in 1832. This biography was continued by his son, and finally completed in a second volume by Dr. Craigie in 1859.

CULLERA, kōō-lyā'rå. A fortified town of Spain, in the Province of Valencia, on the Júcar River, near its entrance into the Mediterranean, 23 miles south-southeast of Valencia (Map: Spain, E 3). Its streets are irregular but level, and among the noteworthy features are a ruined castle and the chapel of the Virgen de Cullera. Fishing, agriculture, and stock-raising are the principal industries. The city is the centre of a considerable trade in grain, rice, oranges, wine, etc. Cullera was of great military importance under the Moors, by whom it was strongly fortified, and successfully withstood attacks of the Christian armies in 1234 and 1235, though later it was taken by James I. of Aragon. Population, in 1900, 11,957.

A

A

CULLO'DEN, or DRUMMOSSIE MOOR. Scottish battlefield in Inverness-shire, near the Moray Firth. The place was formerly a desolate tableland, but is now well cultivated. Here on April 16 (new style, 27), 1746, the Duke of Cumberland, with 12,000 royal troops, overwhelmed an army of 5000 Highlanders, under Prince Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, and extinguished the hopes of the House of Stuart of regaining the English crown. monumental cairn marks the spot where the battle was fiercest, and where many of the slain lie buried. At Culloden House, a mile to the north, the family seat of Duncan Forbes, the valuable historical collection of Culloden Papers, covering the years 1625-1748, was discovered in 1812. They were published in London in 1815. Consult William Augustus, Duke of Cumberland, Authentic Account of the Battle of Culloden (London, 1746).

An

CUL'LOM, SHELBY MOORE (1829-). American politician, born in Wayne County, Ky. He was admitted to the bar in 1855, and began the practice of the law at Springfield, Ill. Here he soon became prominent in politics, was several times elected to the Illinois Legislature, and was Speaker of the House in 1861 and again in 1873. He was a member of Congress for three terms after 1865, and was Governor of Illinois from 1876 to 1883. He then entered the United States Senate as a Republican, and was reëlected in 1889, 1895, and 1901. He was the author of the Interstate Commerce Law, and for many years was chairman of the Senate Committee on Interstate Commerce. In 1898 he was appointed one of the commissioners to establish the Government of Hawaii.

CUL'LUM, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1809-92). An American soldier and writer. He was born in New York, graduated in 1833 at West Point, and was instructor of engineering there from 1848 to 1855. He was made chief engineer of the Department of the Missouri in 1861, superintended engineering works on the Western rivers, and was chief engineer at the siege of Corinth. He was superintendent of the Military Academy from 1864 to 1866, and was brevetted major-general in 1865. He retired from active service in 1874. He published: Systems of Military Bridges (1863); Biographical Register of the Officers and Graduates of the United States Military

Academy (1868; 3-vol. ed. 1890); Campaigns and Engineers of the War of 1812-15 (1879). On his death he left part of his fortune to be used for the erection of the Memorial Hall at West Point, and for the continuance of his Biographical Register.

CULM. See KULM.

CULM (ME. culme, colm, soot, smoke, or perhaps connected with Welsh culm, knot, the coal being found in knots in some places in Wales, Olr. colmmene, nerve, Bret. koulm, knot). A term used in the United States for the waste coal thrown out in anthracite mining. Owing to its fine size, much difficulty was experienced for some time in using it. At the present day it is either pressed into bricks or burned on special types of grate, often with forced draught. The name has a similar application in parts of Wales, but in some parts of England it is used in a general sense for anthracite. See ANTHRACITE.

CULMANN, kōōl'mån, KARL (1821-81). A German engineer, born at Bergzabern, Bavaria. He studied at the Artillery School of Metz and the Technical School of Karlsruhe, and from 1841 to 1849 was active as an engineer in bridge construction. In 1855 he was appointed professor of engineering in the Polytechnic School of Zurich, of which he was director from 1872 to 1875. He was the originator of the method of graphical statics, by which the strength of structures is investigated through diagrams made to scale. In exposition of this he published Graphische Statik (1864-66). Among his further works is Untersuchungen über die Schweizer Wildbäche von 1858 bis 1863 (1864), translated into Italian and French.

CULMBACH, kōōlm'bäк, HANS VON. KULMBACH, HANS VON.

name.

See

CULMINATION (from ML. culminare, to culminate, from Lat. culmen, OLat. columen, height, from collis, hill, celsus, high). An astronomical term, signifying the passage of a star across the meridian. The star is then at the highest point (culmen) of its course; hence the The sun culminates at midday, or 12 o'clock, apparent solar time-which seldom agrees exactly with mean time as shown by a watch or clock. The full moon culminates at midnight. The time of culmination of a fixed star is always exactly midway between the times of its rising and setting; in the case of the sun, moon, and planets, it is only approximately so.

CUL/PA. At Roman law, culpa sometimes means fault in general, but in the narrower and usual sense it designates carelessness or negligence. When damage has been done without right and willfully (dolo), the doer is always responsible. When damage is occasioned by a careless act or by failure to act as a careful person would act, the person chargeable with carelessness is not usually responsible unless he be under some special obligation to exercise care (diligentia). Such an obligation regularly exists only in contractual and quasi-contractual relations; and here the question what degree of carelessness creates liability depends upon the degree of care which the law requires. The standard, in most cases, is the care commonly exercised in similar matters by a good householder (diligentia boni patris familia). Exceptionally, in some cases, a person who is habitually some