tites by the dorsal position of its siphuncle. The shell of this genus is a flattened spiral, the whorls of which are closely coiled so that each whorl clasps the outer half of that next inside it. The suture-lines are simply curved or lobed. In some beds of the European Upper Devonian the shells of this genus are so abundant as to give the name 'Clymenienkalk' to the limestone containing them. Consult Foord and Crick, Catalogue of the Fossil Cephalopoda in the British Museum of Natural History, part iii., pp. 1432 (London, 1897). See also GONIATITES; CEPHALOPODA; DEVONIAN SYSTEM.

CLYMER, kli'mēr, GEORGE (1739-1813). An American patriot, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence and a prominent member of the Constitutional Convention of 1787. He was born in Philadelphia, was orphaned when only one year old, was educated at the College of Philadelphia (now the University of Pennsylvania), and became a merchant in his native city. In 1772 he was appointed by Governor Penn to the position of Justice of the Court of General Quarter Sessions of the Peace, and of the County Court of Common Pleas of Philadelphia.' On the approach of the Revolutionary War, he became an active member of the patriot party, and was chosen successively a member of the Committee of Correspondence (1774) and of the Provincial Congress of Pennsylvania (1775). From July, 1775, to August, 1776, he served as one of the two treasurers of the Continental Congress; from October, 1775, to July, 1776, he was a leading member of the Pennsylvania Committee of Safety; and in July, 1776, he was one of the five men who were appointed by the Pennsylvania Legislature in place of the Pennsylvania delegates who had opposed the Declaration of Independence, which document he signed on August 2. He was a prominent member of the Constitutional Conventions of Pennsylvania in 1776 and 1779; served as captain under Cadwalader at the battle of Princeton; was a member of the Pennsylvania Assembly in 1777 and 1778; was reëlected to the Continental Congress in March of 1778; was sent to Valley Forge by Congress as a special commissioner to inquire into the alleged maladministration of the Commissary Department; and in 1778 was one of the special commissioners sent by Congress to treat with the Indians at Fort Pitt (Pittsburg). In May, 1780, he cooperated with Robert Morris and others in founding the Bank of Pennsylvania to facilitate the furnishing of supplies to the army, and in both

1780 and 1781 he was reëlected to the Continen

tal Congress, by which in 1782 he, with Edward Rutledge, was sent as special commissioner to the Southern States, to secure the payment of

funds due to the national treasury. From 1782 to 1785 he lived at Princeton, N. J., but returned to Philadelphia in the latter year and from then until 1789 was an influential member of the Pennsylvania Assembly. He took a prominent part in the Constitutional Convention of 1787; was a member of Congress from 1789 to 1791; was appointed by Washington in 1789 Supervisor of the Internal Revenue for Pennsyl. vania, in which capacity he was charged with the collection of the tax on spirits which brought on the Whisky Insurrection (q.v.); and in 1796 was one of the special commissioners appointed by Washington to treat with the Creeks and

Cherokees in Georgia. Subsequently, though taking no further part in public life, he took an active interest in public enterprises of various kinds, devoted much of his time to reading and study, and was president of the Philadelphia Bank and of the Academy of Fine Arts. He was one of the foremost leaders during the Revolutionary period, and had a wide reputation for ability, learning, and patriotism. Consult Dickenson, in the Magazine of American History, vol. v. (New York, 1880).

CLYSTER, klis'ter (Lat., from Gk. «λuσTÝρ, klyster, a syringe, from kλúšev, klyzein, to purify). An old term for a medicine administered in the liquid form by the rectum, or lower end of the intestines. See ENEMA.

CLY TEMNES'TRA (Lat., from Gk. KλvTahorpa, Klytaimnēstra). In Greek legend, the daughter of King Tyndareus and Leda, and the twin sister of Helen. She became the wife of Agamemnon (q.v.), and bore him a son, Orestes, and three daughters, Iphigenia, Electra, and Chrysothemis. During the absence of Agamemnon on his expedition to Troy she formed an adulterous connection with Ægisthus (q.v.), murdered her husband on his return, and reigned for seven years with Ægisthus, till she was murdered by her own son, Orestes.

CLYTIE, kli'tė (Lat., from Gk. KAUTín, Klytië). A Greek maiden beloved by Helios (the sun). When he deserted her for Leucothea, she betrayed the latter to her father, who put her to death. As her lover did not return, she gazed after him, until in pity the gods changed her to a flower, called by the Greeks ηλιοτρόπιον, heliotropion, of the same family as our heliotrope. The so-called Clytie of the British Museum is only the portrait of a Roman maiden.

famous for its

CNIDUS, ni'dús, or GNIDOS (Lat., from Gk. Kvldos, Knidos). An ancient city on the western extremity of the promontory of Triopion (now Cape Krio), in Caria, Asia Minor, founded as a colony from the east coast of the Peloponnesus, hence said to be both Laconian and Argolic, and one of the six cities of the Dorian League. Cnidus (according to Strabo) had two ports, one of which was a closed harbor for war vessels. The original settlement was on an island, but the city later spread to the mainland, and a mole was built to unite the two parts. The southern port was formed by two moles carried into the sea to the depth of nearly 100 feet, one of which is nearly perfect at the worship of Aphrodite, and in one of its tempresent day. The city was ples was the famous nude statue of the goddess by Praxiteles. The Cnidians valued this work so highly that they are said to have refused the offer of Nicomedes of Bithynia to pay their large public debt in exchange for this statue. Off Cnidus, the Athenian admiral Conon defeated the Spartan fleet in B.C. 394, and thus broke the power of Sparta in Asia Minor. The site is still covered with ruins, and in 1857-58 Sir Charles T. Newton excavated the sacred precinct of Demeter, discovering the fine seated statue of the goddess now in the British Museum. Consult: Newton, Discoveries at Halicarnassus, Cnidus, and Branchida (London, 1862-63), and Travels and Discoveries in the Levant (London, 1865).

CNOSUS, nō'sūs, or GNOSUs (Lat., from Gk. Krwebs, Knōsos, or less correctly Krwooós, Knōssos). An ancient city of Crete, on the north side of the island, 3 miles from the coast, near the modern Candia (q.v.), famous in legend as the home of King Minos (q.v.). The Dictaan cave in the neighborhood was a legendary birth-place of Zeus, though in later times somewhat supplanted by the Idæan cave on Mount Ida as a seat of worship. Here also legend placed the famous labyrinth (q.v.), in which the Minotaur was confined. In later times Cnosus was inhabited by Dorians, and shared with Gortyna the chief power in the island. Of late the site has become important from the excavations made by A. J. Evans during 1899-1900 and the following years. These have shown that the site of the early town was abandoned near the end of the Myce næan period, never to be reinhabited. A village of the Mycenæan period has been discovered, and also a palace of far greater size and splendor than any yet known, bearing witness to the great power of the rulers of Cnosus in the heroic age. The decorations include wall-paintings on stucco, and reliefs of an artistic merit hitherto unsuspected in so remote a period (about B.C. 15001200) outside of Egypt. The art, however, is not Egyptian, but must be attributed to the preDorian civilization of Greece. In the palace were also found a great number of clay tablets bearing inscriptions in two varieties of writing, neither of which can be read, though it seems clear that some of the tablets contain inventories of chariots, shields, and other stores. See ARCHEOLOGY; MYCENEAN AGE.

COACH (Fr. coche, Ger. Kutsche, probably from Hung. kocsi, coach, named after a little place called Kocs (pronounced Koch) in western Hungary). A heavy inclosed four-wheeled carriage for the conveyance of passengers. The construction of the coach differs from that of other inclosed vehicles in the following particulars: (1) The roof forms a part of the framing of the body, and in this respect the construction is different from other covered carriages in which the roof is simply a canopy supported by iron rods or wooden pillars. (2) coaches from the earliest times were suspended on springs. The coach sent by Ladislas, King of Hungary, to Charles VII. of France, is described as a carriage the body of which 'trembled.' (3) A coach is always designed with more than one seat for passengers. According to Thrupp (see Bibliography below), coaches were first made in the town of Kocs, Hungary, and were so called from the name of the town, just as landaus and berlins are named from the towns which produced them. The same author traces their development from the huge agricultural wagons used on the Continent in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, which were so constructed that, by different adjustment, they could carry a long timber, a cask of wine, a load of hay, or a family. The coaches of the Middle Ages were very elaborate affairs, used only by royalty and nobility, and for purposes of state. As late as 1550 there were only three coaches in Paris; one of these belonged to the Queen, another to Diana of Poitiers, and a third to a nobleman who was too corpulent to ride a horse. In 1631 a 'glass coach,' that is, a coach with glass windows, was built for the Infanta of Spain.

The first coach ever seen in England was made

in 1555 by Walter Rippon for the Earl of Rutland; in 1564 the same builder made a showy vehicle for Queen Elizabeth. Later in her reign the royal coaches were constructed with sliding panels, so that the Queen could show herself to her subjects whenever she desired.

STATE COACHES. The Romans during the Empire had a system of public vehicles for hire which traveled over definite routes and probably at stated times. During the Middle Ages no such system of public conveyance prevailed. Toward the end of the sixteenth century wagons began to travel regularly between the principal towns of England to carry goods and people. These wagons were called stages. They were soon superseded by coaches. In 1662 we find a writer condemning this innovation because "these coaches make country gentlemen come to London on small occasion, which otherwise they would not do but on urgent necessity; nay, the conveniency of the passage makes their wives often come up, who, rather than make such long journeys on horseback, would stay at home. Here, when they come to town, they must be in the fashion, get fine clothes, and by this means get such a habit of idleness and love of pleasure that they are uneasy ever after." In spite of such protests coaches became more and more popular, and by 1750 an elaborate system of routes had been established. In 1784 these coaches began to carry the mail. The flourishing period of the stage-coach was at the opening of the nineteenth century. About this time an extensive goodroads movement had been inspired by the systems of Macadam and Telford. The stage-coaches acquired a speed of ten miles an hour on the most important English routes. In America stage routes, although established between some of the principal cities, were never developed to the extent to which they were in England. The introduction of transportation by steam proved a speedy and successful rival. This form of carriage-the railway-car--has been given the name of coach, and, indeed, the early passenger-cars were modeled in shape after the coaches. For further history, see COACHING.

At the beginning of the twentieth century coaches are built both for public and private use, and in design they are closely akin to those in use in England during pre-railroad days. They may be described as consisting of two parts-the carriage and the body. The former comprises the axles, perch (or reach), futchells, and transom (or bed), and many minor component parts, which together with the wheels form a complete vehicle or carriage upon which the body part is supported by the springs. The latter are secured to the bed and body by clips, and are always made of several stiff plates, because of their greater elasticity as compared with one plate of steel of the same length. The pole fits between the inside futchells, and completes the carriage part. In the best-made carriages the dimensions of a pole are: 31⁄2 inches wide, and 44 deep, measured at a point 2 feet from the splinterbar. For horses averaging between 15 and 16 hands, the length of the pole is usually 9 feet from the front of the splinter-bar to the crosshead or the pole-head; for smaller horses, cobs, etc., about 3 inches shorter. The body is practically the same in all coaches, and is usually 4 feet 10 inches in length, 4 feet wide, and 4 feet 2 inches high. It is built as lightly as pos

sible, so as not to detract from the centre of gravity of the coach. The roof is almost flat, in order that seats may be built on it, or for baggage, and the sides have a 'cant' in a horizontal direction, and the 'turn under' in a vertical direction. There are two boots, the one in front being a few inches higher on the body than the hind boot, which latter is about two feet long (the front one three feet), and two feet deep. Both these boots are a little narrower than the body. The box and driving seat are placed on the front part of the front boot, and are supported by solid ends or risers. The shape of the seat is made by the cushion, and not by the seat itself, which is always flat. All modern coaches have brakes, but a good driver rarely has recourse to them, except in emergencies. (See DRIVING.) A complete set of tools is carried in case of accidents to horses or vehicle. The weight of a road coach varies from 2200 to 2600 pounds. Builders generally contrive to throw more of the whole weight into the carriage part, in order to keep the centre of gravity low, and because it has to withstand the bulk of the strains. The cost of a coach depends very largely upon its finish and the country in which it is built. Approximately, average prices are: in America, $2400; England, 300 guineas; and France, 8000 francs.

The typical American coach is the Concord coach, so called from Concord, N. H., where many of them are built. Its principal constructive features are three parallel straight perches connecting the hind axle with the front transom bed, which steady a very rigid, rectangular frame. At each of the four corners of this frame are placed stiff iron standards carrying at their upper ends square iron shackles. Connecting with these shackles are strong leather straps, upon which rests the body of the coach, a mode of suspension common to European carriages before the use of springs. These latter are entirely absent in the Concord coach. so-called Hackney coach is a smaller fourwheeled vehicle for hire. Consult: Adams, English Pleasure Carriages (London, 1837); Thrupp, History of the Art of Coach-building (London, 1877). See CARRIAGES; COACHING.

difficult. The coach-horn varies considerably in length, a short (42-inch) horn giving more brilliant notes, and a long (56-inch) horn giving a softer, richer tone. The various calls sounded with the coach-horn have a well-recognized place in coaching; and in addition to those used universally, as in the case of the examples noted below, there are others employed by particular coaches and routes. A few of the best-known calls are as follows: Get Ready.

Clear the Road.

Off Side.

COACH-DOG, or DALMATIAN CARRIAGE-DOG. A dog of medium size, related to the hounds (q.v.), and having the form and smooth coat of a pointer, which properly is used only to follow a carriage, as an ornamental part of the equip age, and as a watch-dog about the stable. This dog should, therefore, be capable of endurance on foot, trim of form, well groomed, and 'stylish' in appearance. The coat must be pure white, evenly spotted with small, round, distinct spots, from half an inch to an inch in diameter, either perfectly black or pure brown. The head should be long, fine, and like that of a pointer, but not so deep. This dog is commonly said to have been first bred in Dalmatia, but the same breed seems to have been common in Spain as far back, at least, as the sixteenth century. It See

is often used in Denmark to draw carts. DOG.

COACH-HORN. A straight tapering horn made of brass or copper, and used to sound certain simple calls. There are no keys and the range is limited to the six open notes (c1-g1-c2 e-g-c-), of which the high c is exceedingly

Near Side.

The Start.

COACHING. Driving or being driven in a coach (q.v.) drawn by four or more horses. The driving of a coach requires great skill, coolness, judgment, and a knowledge of horses on the part of the driver; and, where indulged in as a sport or pastime, may be said to derive its greatest attraction from that fact alone. The history of coaching is naturally part of the history of the coach, for which see article COACH. The first stage in England was put on the road in 1659 and traveled between London and Coventry. At the beginning of the eighteenth century there were many coaches employed throughout the country; but the slowness of travel was such that it took a week to go from London to York, and proportionately for all lesser distances. royal mail, which had been carried by a system of post-boys under a contract speed of five miles an hour, was, in 1784, undertaken by Palmer's mail-coach service, which carried mail as well as passengers, and grew to such a success that the average speed-rate of mail coaches was brought up to 10 miles an hour. This, however, was due almost entirely to the improvements in road construction instituted by Macadam and Telford. In 1836 coaching had become so important an institution that 54 coaches were employed in England, 30 in Ireland, and 10 in Scotland. The British Government exercised a rigid supervision

The

agulates at a temperature of 160°. Milk is coagulated or curdled by the action of rennet or by acids. The fibrin in the blood, chyle, and lymph of animals is coagulated after the separation of these fluids from the living body.

COAHUILA, kō'à-wē'lå (named from the Mexican tribe Coahuiltecs). A northern State of Mexico, separated from Texas on the north and east by the Rio Grande, and covering an area of 63,745 square miles (Map: Mexico, H 4). With the exception of the eastern part, which is somewhat mountainous, the surface forms an elevated plateau, with a general incline toward the Rio Grande. The western part is taken up by the Bolson de Mapimi, a semi-desert region, only partially explored, with many lagoons and vast mineral resources. The climate is moderate and healthful. The chief occupation is cattleraising, although the soil is well adapted for the growing of cereals and European vegetables, to which more and more attention is being paid. In the southwest some vines and cotton are cultivated. The State is traversed from north

By

types being connected by all degrees of intermediate stages. In Carboniferous times certain regions were covered by rank and luxuriant vegetation which grew upon swampy land slightly raised above the level of the sea. As the plants died, their remains fell into the water of the swamp, and slowly formed an accumulation of vegetable matter of increasing thickness. slow subsidence this thick layer of vegetable matter sank below the water, and became gradually covered by sand, mud, or other mineral sediments, washed out from the shore. Successive elevations and depressions, with intervening accumulations, may thus have yielded successive beds. Subsequent elevation, folding of the earth's crust, and accompanying metamorphism, followed by erosion of the surface, has exposed to view the edges of the once deeply buried beds of coal.

COMPOSITION. The following analyses of peat, lignite or brown coal, and true coal indicate the changes which vegetable matter undergoes by decay and pressure:

to south by the Mexican International Railway. Population, in 1900, 296,938; capital, Saltillo (q.v.).

COAITA, kô-äi'tå. See SPIDER-MONKEY. COAL (AS. col, OHG. kolo, Ger. Kohle; ultimately connected with Skt. jval, to blaze, and probably with Ir., Gael. gual, coal). A mineral fuel of solid character, found and used in many countries. The name is a word common to all the languages of the Gothic stock, and seems allied to the Latin calere, to be hot; as also 'to glow,' and 'kiln.' The word 'coal' has often prefixed to it some qualifying word, to distinguish different kinds of coal; such as cannel coal, stone coal, pea coal, etc.

ORIGIN. Coal is one of the most important economic minerals, and is of vegetable origin. When vegetable matter accumulates under water it undergoes a slow process of decomposition, gradually giving off its nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen, and some carbon, the result of which if carried far enough is the formation of a mass of carbon. Peat (q.v.), the material so often found underlying swampy tracts in north temperate zones, represents the first stage in the coal-forming process, and the further stages are obtained by the burial of these vegetable deposits under great loads of sediment, where they become subjected to pressure, and at times to heat also. This effects a series of changes, especially consolidation and loss of oxygen, and gives a series of products, whose nature depends on the degree to which the original vegetable matter has been changed. The products are known as lignite, bituminous coal, and anthracite coal; these three

A proximate analysis like the above is of practical value, since it gives us a better conception of the coal worth. Thus the freedom of burning increases with the amount of volatile hydrocarbons, while the heating power depends on the amount of fixed carbon present. Sulphur is an injurious constituent when the coal is to be used in the manufacture of gas or for metallur gical purposes; while ash is undesirable, since it displaces so much carbon, and if it contains fusible impurities such as iron, lime, or alkalies, it causes clinkering. Moisture retards the heating power of the coal until it is driven off. Since