called the flat.

Unprotected cruisers have no protective deck. Some of them have a watertight deck in the same region, but of insufficient thickness to admit of styling it a protective deck. Cruisers are frequently divided into first-class cruisers, second-class cruisers, etc. These distinctions are purely arbitrary, and differ in the various navies. In the United States Navy small cruisers are called gunboats. This is a term properly applicable to craft so small as to approximate to large boats. In the British Navy the terms gunboat' and 'gun-vessel' are used almost as loosely. In addition to the regular cruisers, a most important addition to the naval force in time of war is found in fast merchant steamers, which are frequently armed as auxiliary cruisers, and used as ocean scouts, or fleet scouts; in the former case, they are bound on distant missions; in the latter, they accompany

the fleet.

CRUITHNIGH, kruth'ni, or CRUITHNIANS, kruth'ni-anz. The name given by the Irish to invading tribes of Picts, from whom the kings of Ulster were supposed to have descended. The appellation was subsequently applied to some of the inhabitants of the counties of Antrim and Down. They were also called Dalaradians, and their country Dalaradia (q.v.). The name Cruithnigh is sometimes derived from the custom of painting and tattooing practiced by the people. The Irish called the Picts of Britain Cruithnigh, and it is probable that the Irish Cruithnigh were related to those of Britain, as a Pictish colony

came from Scotland and settled in Dalaradia a century before the Christian Era.

CRUIVE, kruv, or ZAIRE, zar (probably from Gael. cro, sheep-cote, hovel). A contrivance erected upon rivers in Scotland for the purpose of catching salmon. These weirs are of great antiquity, and consist of a kind of hedge formed by stakes driven into the ground, the interstices being filled with brush, and the mode of capturing salmon being similar to those employed with bag and stake nets. See NET.

CRUM MELL, ALEXANDER (1818-98). A negro clergyman of the Protestant Episcopal Church. He was born in New York, was educated at the Oneida Institute, N. Y., and graduated from Cambridge University. England. He held a professorship in the Liberian College, at Liberia, West Africa, and then returned to the United States, and was rector for twenty-two years of St. Luke's Church, Washington, D. C. He was one of the first of the negro clergymen to enter the Episcopal Church. His works comprise: The Future of Africa (1862); The Greatness of Christ, and Other Sermons (1882); and Africa and America (1891).

CRUMMLES, krum'lz, VINCENT. The head of a theatrical family, in Dickens's Nicholas Nickleby, consisting of himself, his wife, two sons, the 'Infant Phenomenon,' and a performing pony. A big-bodied, big-hearted man, who is very kind to Nicholas and Smike.

CRUNCH'ER, JERRY. In Dickens's Tale of Tico Cities, a general utility man in Tellson's banking house by day, and a 'resurrection man' at night. His wife's constant prayers he calls 'Hopping.'

CRUQUIUS, kroo'ki-us. The Latinized name of a renowned Flemish scholar of the sixteenth

century, Jacques de Crusque. He was professor at Bruges, and his studies in Horace have had a most important influence on our knowledge of that poet. In his commentary on Horace, Cruquius gives readings from the four valuable 'Blandinian' manuscripts, since destroyed, one of which is very ancient; and also quotes the marginal notes of an early commentator, whose name is lost, but who is now cited as 'Commentator Cruquianus.'

CRUSADE (Fr. croisade, It. crociata, from ML. cruciata, crusade, from cruciare, to mark with the cross, from Lat. crux, cross). A war undertaken for a religious purpose; specifically one of the wars waged by the Christians for the recovery of the Holy Land. Toward the close of the eleventh century, when the Byzantine Empire was in great danger of being conquered by the Seljukian Turks, the Emperor Alexis Comnenus appealed to Pope Urban II. for help. At the Council of Clermont, in November, 1095, the latter made his memorable speech, in which he exhorted his hearers to bear aid to the Eastern Empire, and to reconquer Jerusalem. His fiery eloquence evoked an enthusiastic response; for he appealed to all the were then influential-to the motives which spirit of religious enthusiasm; to the love of fighting and adventure; and to the desire, in After the many, of bettering their fortunes. conclusion of Urban's speech, many pressed forward to take the Crusader's vow and the cross, which was the symbol of this vow and gave its name to the movement. The agitation spread rapidly to all the countries of western Europe made deliberate preparations for an expedition and embraced all ranks of society. The nobles which was expected to last three years; but the common people, among whom Peter the Hermit (q.v.) and others had been busily preaching the Crusade, were too impatient, and many of them too poor, to wait. In the spring of 1096 thousands of men, women, and children started in different bands under the leadership of Walter the Penniless, Peter, and others. They marched from Cologne and the Rhineland, across Germany, through Hungary, along the Danube, and southward to Constantinople. These bands were very disorderly; their course was marked by persecution of the Jews, robbery, and plunder, and many of them were slaughtered by the infuriated inhabitants of the countries through which they passed. Those who reached Constantinople were received graciously by the Emperor. Their disorderly conduct, however, soon caused him to transport them to Asia Minor, where almost all were slain by the Turks. The march of these disorderly bands is generally styled the Peasants' Crusade.

THE FIRST CRUSADE, 1096-99. In the summer and fall of 1096 the real armies, led by the nobles, began their march. Among the leaders were Godfrey of Bouillon, Bohemond, Prince of Tarentum, Robert of Normandy, Robert of Flanders, and Raymond, Count of Toulouse, who was ferent routes to Constantinople, where they were the latest of all to start. They proceeded by difdelayed by the Emperor, who was alarmed by their numbers and lack of discipline, but wished to make use of their strength. An agreement was finally made, by which almost all of the leaders were induced to become his vassals, but in the campaign which followed neither party

was

kept its promises, and the long negotiations resulted only in a mutual feeling of antagonism, which proved disastrous to the Christian cause. All of the Crusaders met at the siege of Nicæa, in May, 1097, when the army may have numbered 100,000, besides the women and non-combatants. Six millions were said to have taken the cross, but undoubtedly the number greatly exaggerated; many, besides, who had taken the vow had turned back or were dead. Nicea was taken, the Sultan of Iconium was defeated at Dorylæum, and in a few months the Crusaders accomplished the arduous march to Antioch, which was captured after a siege lasting from October 21, 1097, to June 2, 1098. In the meantime, Baldwin, brother of Godfrey, had taken possession of Edessa for himself, and Bohemond established himself as Prince of Antioch. The leaders became so intent on making conquests for their own profit that the advance to Jerusalem was delayed for months. Finally, on June 7, 1099, the remnants of the army, about 20.000 in number, reached Jerusalem. After a siege of five weeks, the city was captured by reckless daring, on July 15. The Crusaders vented their wrath in an indiscriminate massacre, in which neither youth nor age was spared, and men and women were slaughtered in the holy places. The leaders wrote home exultingly, "In Solomon's Porch and in his temple our men rode in the blood of the Saracens up to the knees of their horses." Godfrey was elected Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepulchre,' and after the battle of Ascalon, in which the Egyptian army was defeated with great slaughter, almost all of the Crusaders returned home, leaving Godfrey

with a small band of followers to defend Jerusa

lem. Bohemond held Antioch with his Norman followers. Baldwin was in the distant Edessa.

A large part of Asia Minor was restored to the Greek Emperor. The news of the victories gained by the Crusaders set into motion three great armies from France, Germany, and Italy (110102), but, owing to their own excesses and folly, they fell an easy prey to the Mussulmans in Asia Minor.

THE SECOND CRUSADE, 1147-49. In 1144 Edessa was captured by the Mohammedans. The news of its loss aroused great alarm in the West, and a new Crusade was initiated, in which special privileges were offered to all participants. Bernard of Clairvaux was the great preacher of this movement. Conrad III. of Germany and Louis VII. of France took the cross and led great armies to the relief of the Holy Land, Conrad and Frederick Barbarossa starting from Ratisbon, in April, 1147. The march was very disorderly, and when the Crusaders entered the Byzantine Empire they came to blows with the Greeks. After much trouble, the Bosporus was crossed and the army advanced into Asia Minor, led by Greek guides. The guides proved treacherous, the troops were harassed by the Turks, and finally, threatened with famine and death, they retreated, closely pursued by the enemy, scarcely one in ten getting back to Nicæa. Louis had better fortune; his army was more orderly, and he was well received by the Greek Emperor, although, when the French King crossed to Asia Minor, the Emperor refused to furnish guides until Louis and his barons had taken the oath of homage. Near Nicea they met the German fugitives, with whom they joined forces and

marched along the coast. Conrad soon turned back and spent the winter in Constantinople, but Louis went on, and, after meeting with a terrible defeat, in which the Greeks aided the Turks, he and his knights went by ships to Antioch, while the common people were left behind to be slaughtered. From Antioch, Louis proceeded to Jerusalem, where he was joined by Conrad. Together they planned the renewal of hostilities on a grand scale, but their schemes miscarried, and the kings went home in disgust.

THE THIRD CRUSADE, 1189-91. The capture of Jerusalem by Saladin, in 1187, caused Frederick Barbarossa, Philip Augustus of France, and Richard the Lion-Hearted of England to take the cross. Frederick was drowned soon after he reached Syria. Richard and Philip captured Acre after a long siege; but the two kings quarreled so bitterly that Philip went home soon after the capture. Richard, thwarted at every turn by Saladin (q.v.), was compelled to make a truce without accomplishing anything more.

THE FOURTH CRUSADE, 1201-04. Innocent III. (q.v.) made every effort to bring about a new Crusade. A great number of Latin nobles and knights were induced to take the cross, and the enthusiasm of the people was unbounded. Among the leaders in this Crusade were Baldwin of Flanders, Boniface of Montferrat, and Geoffroy de Villehardouin, Louis of Blois, and Simon de Montfort. Arrangements were made with Venice that the republic should supply the vessels and provisions for the journey; but, when the Crusaders reached Venice, they could not raise the amount agreed upon for payment. After a long delay, they made a new bargain with Venice by undertaking to capture for her the city of Zara, in Dalmatia. The common soldiers were kept in ignorance of the infamous plan until it was too late for effectual protest. Zara was sacked, and the army spent the winter there. In the meantime, a new plot was hatched by which, under pretense of reinstating the rightful Byzantine Emperor, Isaac Angelus, the Crusade was diverted to Constantinople. Isaac Angelus was restored to his throne, but, as he was not able to fulfill the conditions to which he had been compelled to agree, the Crusaders turned against him. Constantinople was captured a second time and sacked (1204). Much of the city was burned, precious works of art were destroyed, and enormous quantities of booty were secured. The Crusaders and the Venetians divided their conquests, and the Latin Empire (q.v.) was established. The last three Crusades effected little permanent good for the Christian cause. The Fifth Crusade took place in 1228-29. The German Emperor, Frederick II. (q.v.), who had taken the vow, went to the Holy Land and, by a treaty with the Mohammedan powers, secured Jerusalem. In 1244 the Holy City fell into the hands of the Kharesmians. The Sixth Crusade (1248-54) was led by Louis IX. of France (Saint Louis). He invaded Egypt, and, although at first successful, was soon defeated, captured, and compelled to pay an enormous ransom. He then went to the Holy Land, rebuilt some fortresses, but accomplished little of importance. In 1270 he started on the Seventh Crusade, but was induced to turn aside to Tunis, where he died. Edward Plantagenet associated himself with Louis IX. in that Crusade. He abandoned the Holy Land in 1272, and this

year is generally considered to mark the end of the Crusades.

In addition to the seven principal Crusades, there were countless other expeditions. In some of these large armies took part, as in the Crusade of 1101, of which mention has been made; the German Crusade of 1197; the Children's Crusade (q.v.) in 1212; and the Crusade of John of Brienne and Andrew II. of Hungary in 1217-21, which achieved the conquest of Damietta, in Egypt, in 1219. The last is often called the Fifth Crusade, and in fact the first four Crusades are the only ones to which the same numbers are assigned by unanimous consent. In addition, almost every year, from 1100 to 1270, small bands of Crusaders went to the Holy Land, and after 1270 many attempts were made to reconquer Jerusalem. There were also Crusades in the West against the Moors in Spain, and against the heathen Prussians. (See article TEUTONIC KNIGHTS.) Besides these Crusades against pagans, many Crusades were preached against the Albigenses (q.v.), the Hohenstaufen (q.v.), and other opponents of the popes, the name being used for all kinds of expeditions in which the Church was interested.

THE RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. The Crusades were of very great importance in the history of Europe in that they accelerated many movements which without them would probably have advanced much more gradually. They contributed to the growth of the great Italian seaports, by establishing closer commercial communications between Europe and the East; they enriched the Church and increased its powers, and they helped to develop the strength of the French monarchy in killing off large numbers of the turbulent nobility, and removing others to a more grateful field of activity in Asia and Africa. For Europe at large the most important results were these: (1) They checked the advance of the Mohammedans for a considerable period of time; for, by carrying the war into the enemy's country, they prevented his advance into Europe. It is true that too much stress may be laid on this fact, for the Crusades undoubtedly weakened the Byzantine Empire and made it an easier prey for the Turks in the fifteenth century; but in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries the Crusading States in the East served as outposts to guard against the invasion of Europe. (2) The Crusades enriched Europe greatly by promoting the growth of commerce. In order to transfer the Crusading armies and to supply their various needs, great fleets had to be built. These brought back to the West the products of the Orient. In Asia and Africa, the Crusaders acquired new tastes and desires, which had to be gratified by a more extensive commerce-witness the remark able growth in the use of sugars and spices in the twelfth century. Money, which previously had been hoarded, was put into circulation, to equip the crusading hosts. All of these causes led to a remarkable growth in wealth and prosperity, which benefited especially the inhabitants of the cities in western Europe. This is regarded by many as the most important result of the Crusades. (3) The Crusades caused a broadening of the intellectual horizon and origi nated a tendency toward skepticism. "On its Oriental Studienreisen, young Europe studied industriously and with great results."

The con

stant contact for two centuries with the more

advanced Byzantine and Arabic culture taught the Crusaders many lessons in civilization. The admiration which they learned to feel for heretics and Mohammedans dispelled many of their prejudices. Some Crusaders became Mohammedans, others became free-thinkers. There was a rapid spread of heresies. "The roots of the Renaissance are to be found in the civilization of the Crusades." There have been three periods of great advance in the history of Europe: the Crusades, the Reformation, and the French Revolution; and of these three the Crusades were not the least important and influential.

BIBLIOGRAPHY. The literature of the Crusades is very extensive, and only a few of the principal titles can be given. The most important collection of sources is the Recueil des historiens des croisades, of which fourteen folio volumes have been published (Paris, 1841, et seq.). Consult also: Bongars, Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 1611), and the publications of the Société de l'Orient (Paris, 1878-84). Of general histories the best are: Wilken, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge (7 vols., Leipzig, 1807-32); Michaud, L'histoire des croisades (Paris, 1825-29, many editions), and also an English translation by Robson, History of the Crusades (London, 1881); Kugler, Geschichte der Kreuzzüge (Berlin, 1891); Archer and Kingsford, The Crusades (New York, 1895); Prutz, Kulturgeschichte der Kreuzzüge (Berlin, 1883); von Sybel, Geschichte des ersten Kreuzzuges (Leipzig, 1900); Röhricht, Geschichte des Königreichs Jerusalem (Berlin, 1898). See ANTIOCH, PRINCIPALITY OF; DAN DOLO; LATIN KINGDOM OF JERUSALEM.

CRUSADE, CHILDREN'S. See CHILDREN'S CRU

A

CRUSIUS, kroo'ze-oos, OTTO (1857-). He became professor at the University of HeidelGerman classical philologist, born at Hanover. berg in 1898, and at Munich in 1903. His works include, Zur griechischen Religionsgeschichte (1886) and Untersuchungen zu Herondas (1892), etc.; and he edited Philologus; Herondas (1901); Fabeln des Babrius (1897), and Griechische Lyriker (1897 et seq.).

CRUSOE, kroo'so, ROBINSON. See ROBINSON CRUSOE.

CRUSTACEA (Neo-Lat. nom. pl., from Lat. crusta, crust). A class of gill-bearing aquatic arthropods, differing from other Branchiata in having five pairs of appendages on the head, the first two of which are antennæ, and in having all of the limbs except the first pair of antennæ biramose.

STRUCTURE. The Crustacea derive their name from the hard armor which in most of them

covers the whole body, forming a complex exoskeleton, calcareous and intermediate between shell and bone in the higher forms, while in the lower and smaller kinds it consists principally of chitin, and corresponds more nearly in its nature with the integuments of insects. It is secreted by the epidermis on its outer side, and serves not merely for protection, but also for the attachment of the muscles. Its color is dependent upon the absence, or presence and amount, of pigment, which is also a product of the epidermis, and is formed during the growth of the skeleton. These pigment-cells are often very ornamental, especially under the microscope, as their shape is beautifully and very irregularly stellate. Usually, however, the pigment is so abundant as to make the body-wall opaque and the individual pigment-cells are no longer visible. The mineral matter of the skeleton is chiefly carbonate of lime. The smallest crustaceans have little or none in the skeleton, but in all of the larger forms it is present in greater or less abundance. In the socalled 'stone-crabs' so much is present that the skeleton is really as hard as a rock. In all cases, however, where the skeleton covers a joint it is thin and free from mineral matter, thus permitting perfect freedom of movement. The bristles and hairs often found on the outside of the skeleton are of the same essential structure as it, and have a central core of epidermis. In barnacles (q.v.), ostracods, water-fleas (q.v.), and a few other crustaceans, there is, in addition to the external skeleton, and formed as an outgrowth of it, a true shell, whose only function is protection. This shell may consist of several pieces, as in barnacles, or be strictly bivalve, as in water-fleas, and it may be wholly chitinous or very firmly calcified. Sometimes it is capable of inclosing the entire animal, but often it only seems to protect certain parts. It is usually hinged along the dorsal side of the animal, where it is attached to the -keleton, and is supplied with muscles for closing

it.

The crustacean body is composed of segments, some very distinct, while others coalesce or are consolidated, of which the thorax of a crab af fords an excellent example. The first five rings are regarded as forming the head, the next eight the thorax, when that part of the body is separable from what follows.

Epidermis and Molting. The crustaceous cov ering has beneath it a true skin, and, like the epidermis, is cast off from time to time and supplied anew, as the growth of the animal requires more room for the internal parts. In this molting or casting of the shell, the animal divests itself of its covering not in separate parts, but in one piece, including the coverings of the limbs and even of the antennæ, although the membranes which connect the hard plates are split and torn. A period of apparent sickness precedes and agitation accompanies the process: and the thick muscular parts of the limbs of crabs and lobsters become soft and flaccid, so as to be more easily extricated from their hard covering. The loss of a limb, which sometimes takes place in this process, and is otherwise a frequent occurrence, is easily repaired, for a new one grows in its stead; but it is a curious circumstance that in order to this reproduction the limb must be broken off at a particular joint, the second from the body, thus leaving only a short stump; and when a limb is broken else

where, the animal itself exercises the remarkable power of throwing it off by this joint.

Locomotive and Other Organs.-The principal organ of locomotion in many Crustacea, as in the lobster, shrimp, etc., is the abdomen, terminating in fan-like appendages; by bending the abdomen suddenly down under the body, the animal darts backward in the water. The limbs, which are connected with the thoracic rings, are, in some, organs of swimming; those of others are used for walking at the bottom of the water or on dry ground. Some have 'swimming-feet' or pleopods attached to the abdomen, often very different from the thoracic legs. The legs of some are fitted for burrowing. The first pair of legs is not infrequently transformed into a pair of pow erful pincers or 'claws,' the last joint but one being prolonged so as to oppose the last joint, which becomes attached as to the side of it; and these are used for seizing and tearing food. The first pair of appendages are organs of touch called antennules; following these are the antennæ, also sense-organs; then come a pair of powerful jaws, the mandibles; and back of these are two pairs of accessory jaws, the maxillæ. The thoracic feet, which follow in regular order, are sometimes modified to function as jaws, and are then called maxillipeds. In some forms the mouth-parts are greatly modified to form sucking instead of masticating organs. The digestive organs are very simple; there is a short but capacious gullet, a large stomach, and a straight and simple intestinal tube. A well-developed digestive gland called the liver is often present. The pyloric region of the stomach is sometimes furnished with a remarkable apparatus of hard tubercles or sharp teeth for grinding or tearing food. Many of the Crustacea feed on animal food, and are very voracious; many, however, feed on vegetable food. The nervous system of crustaceans agrees generally with that of other arthropods, and exhibits many gradations of concentration. The eyes are either simple (ocelli), aggregate (consisting of several ocelli under a common cornea), or compound; and the compound eyes are often elevated on stalks. Besides eyes some crustaceans have ciliated pits or cavities that seem to be sense-organs, perhaps for smell or taste. Others have otocysts or positional organs, but it is doubtful whether any have the sense of hearing. In some Schizopoda there are also 'accessory eyes' on the basal points of certain thoracic feet and in the middle line of the abdomen. The gills are variously placed, on the sides of the body, or on the thoracic limbs, on the abdominal legs, etc. The heart is always in the middle line of the body on the dorsal side, is of variable form, and distributes the blood by a number of trunks through the system; but the blood returns to venous sinuses, from which, and not from the heart, it is sent into the gills, and it is not until after its aëration in the gills that it comes to the heart again.

REPRODUCTION AND ECOLOGY. The sexes are distinct in most Crustacea, and all are oviparous. The eggs are almost invariably hatched in water, even those of terrestrial forms, and a sort of incubation often takes place, as the eggs are carried about under the abdomen or thorax of the female, attached to the pleopods or other appendages. Except in a few cases the development takes place by metamorphosis, through a very remarkable series of larval stages. All the