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last appearance was in 1769, as Violante in the comedy of The Wonder, Garrick himself, out of compliment to her, taking the part of Don Felix. Mrs. Clive's talents were seen to best advantage in comic parts, to which, however, she was not always satisfied to restrict herself. Her vigorous wit and sound sense made her the welcome companion of some of the notable people of her time. In her later life she was an intimate friend of Horace Walpole, who gave her a house at Strawberry Hill. She died December 6, 1785, and was buried at Twickenham. Consult: Fitzgerald, Life of Mrs. Catherine Clive (London, 1888); Austin Dobson, in Matthews and Hutton, Actors and Actresses of Great Britain and the United States, vol. i. (New York, 1886); Doran, Annals of the English Stage (London, 1888).

CLIVE, ROBERT, Baron Clive of Plassey (172574). An English general, whose achievements laid the foundations of the British Indian Empire. His father, a lawyer and small land-owner, came of an ancient Shropshire family, whose manor-seat, Styche, near Market Drayton, dates from the reign of Henry II. There Clive was born September 29, 1725, the eldest of thirteen children. He spent several years with an uncle at Hope Hall, near Manchester, and at various schools showed more aptitude for pugilism, pluck, and mischievousness than for study, although one of his masters predicted his future celebrity. At eighteen years of age he shipped to Madras as a writer to the East India Company. The ship, driven out of its course to Brazil, was detained there for nine months, which Clive utilized by learning Portuguese, a language of service to him during his Indian administration. After his arrival in Madras the climate and monotonous

drudgery of his duties made him unsuccessfully attempt suicide. But with the outbreak of the great struggle between the French and English in India his opportunity came. He applied for and obtained an ensign's commission, and distinguished himself in Boscawen's unsuccessful siege of Pondicherry in 1748. His dauntless courage, previously exhibited in a duel which forms the idealized subject of Browning's poem "Clive," now had scope for development. English influence was almost extinct in India, through the prestige of the French and their allies. In 1751, with 500 mixed English and Sepoy troops, Clive marched from Madras and captured Arcot, a city of 100,000 inhabitants, garrisoned by 1500 of Chunda Sahib's best troops. The daring displayed in the capture of Arcot was equaled by the intrepidity and fortitude exhibited in its successful defense by Clive and his little band, reduced to 200 men, against a besieging army of 7000 natives and French, and impressed the natives with the strength and prowess of Britain. The succeeding campaign, in which successes and personal escapes were of a most dramatic character, included the victories of Arni and Kaveripak, and the capture of Kovilam and Chingalpat. Henceforward Clive's name was a local tower of strength; the natives surnamed him 'Sabat Jung,' or 'the Daring in War'; and Pitt described him as "the youth of twenty-seven years" who had done the deeds of a "heaven-born general." In 1753, with his bride, Margaret Maskelyne, sister of the astronomer, he visited England, and received a diamondhilted sword and the warm thanks of the India Company. Possessed of a moderate fortune, ob

tained from prize-money, he expended part in redeeming the paternal estate, and relieving his father from pecuniary embarrassment. The rest soon disappeared in an unsuccessful Parliamentary contest and the maintenance of a costly establishment. He returned to India in 1755, and in 1756 was called to avenge the Black Hole atrocity perpetrated by Siraj-ud-Daula, Nawab of Bengal. Clive advanced against the Nawab, and in January, 1757, the English were again in possession of Calcutta. A peace was arranged; but Clive, bent upon a brilliant exhibition of his powers, and eager for the riches of Bengal, soon returned to the struggle. To insure his success, he entered into a plot for the elevation to the throne of Bengal of Siraj-ud-Daula's general, Mir Jaffir, who was to desert his chief, and who promised to shower wealth on Clive and the East India Company for his services. On June 23, 1757. Siraj-ud-Daula was overthrown in the battle of Plassey. This victory decided the ascendency of England over France in India, and was followed by the rapid building up of a British Indian empire. Mir Jaffir was placed upon the throne of Bengal, and kept his promises. From shares in these and other spoils, and from presents and territorial grants from native princes, Clive amassed vast wealth, which yielded an annual income of £40,000. After managing the affairs of the East India Company at Calcutta for some years, and winning fresh victories, he returned to England in 1760, and was loaded tary member for Shrewsbury, was raised to the Irish peerage as Baron Clive of Plassey, and in 1764 was created Knight of the Bath. Through the dishonesty of its servants, high and low, the affairs of the Company became greatly involved after his departure from India, and in 1765 he was sent out to set them right. He proved as competent an administrator as a warrior; and in less than eighteen months, by his uncompromising and resolute attitude, "restored perfect order and discipline in both the civil and military services, and brought back prosperity to the wellnigh ruined finances of the Company." He returned to England in 1767, and was received with the distinction to which he was entitled. But the energy he had displayed in righting Indian affairs antagonized many who suffered pecuniarily from the suppression of dishonest practices; and they, possessing influence, employed it in raising English feeling against Clive. His Indian administration was made the subject of animadversion in Parliament in 1772, which he at first ignored, but subsequently replied to in a vigorous and eloquent speech, which elicited Pitt's admiration. A Parliamentary inquiry, the following year, failed to find that Clive had acquired wealth by abuse of power; and the only questionable incident in his government was proved to be a trick to match Oriental duplicity. At some of the supposedly incriminating evidence, Clive indignantly asserted himself with the celebrated exclamation, "By God, Mr. Chairman, I stand astonished at my own moderation!" A qualified acquittal, which acknowledged his "great and meritorious services," was not satisfactory to Clive, who never recovered from the disgrace implied in the trial; this, with sickness, recourse to opium to alleviate his sufferings, and mental depression, led to his suicide, November 22, 1774.

with thanks and honors. He became Parliamen

Consult: Malcolm, Life of Clive (3 vols., Lon

don, 1836); Malleson, Founders of the Indian Empire: Lord Clive (London, 1882); Malleson, Decisive Battles of India (London, 1883); Mill, History of British India, vol. iii. (London, 1858); Orme, History of the Military Transac tions of the British Nation in Indostan (London, 1803); Macaulay, Essay on Clive (London, 1840).

CLOACA, klô-ãʼkȧ (Lat., sewer). The cloaca or drains were subterranean passages, usually built of stone, devised to carry off the spring or waste water and the refuse of a Roman city. In Rome the early city was naturally drained by streams running through three valleys between the hills. Three main channels were built to con

fine these streams, receive the drainage, and carry it to the Tiber. The largest of these, crossing the Argiletum, Forum, and Velabrum, was called, from its size, the Cloaca Maxima, though that of the Vallis Murcia and that near the Circus Flaminius rival it in size and solidity. A network of smaller passages empty into these main channels. The system was largely due to the Tarquins. The Cloaca Maxima was built with three large arches, one within the other. The space inclosed by the innermost vault was upward of 13 feet in width, and of corresponding height. The arches were built of large blocks of stone, fixed together without cement, of the uniform size of rather more than five feet five inches long and three feet high. The flooring is paved like a Roman road, and the side walls are built of Gabii stone, in blocks measuring sometimes 45 cubic feet. The sewer was kept in a state of eficiency by a continuous stream of superfluous water from the aqueducts. Large portions of the cloaca remain in some places still visible, but generally buried by the accumulation of soil, at a considerable depth below the present level of the streets. The mouth of the Cloaca Maxima at the Tiber is still visible. During the Republic the surveillance of the Roman cloaca was one of the duties performed by the censors. The Cloaca Maxima was repaired by Cato and bis colleagues in the censorship. Agrippa, when edile, obtained praise for his exertions in cleans ing and repairing the cloaca, and is recorded to have passed through them in a boat. Under the Empire, officers called curatores cloacarum urbis were appointed for their supervision. So thoroughly was the city undermined by these large sewers that Pliny calls it urbs pensilis, a city suspended in the air rather than resting upon the earth. Drains of the same description, but of smaller dimensions, existed in other ancient Roman cities.

CLOCHES DE CORNEVILLE, LES, lå klôsh' de kôr'n'-vēl. A very popular operetta, in three acts, produced at the Folies Dramatiques in 1877. The amusing libretto is by Clairville and Charles Gabet, the music, from which many airs have become popular, by Robert Planquette.

CLOCK (AS. clucge, Icel. klukka, Ger. Glocke, bell, from ML. clocca, bell, from Olr. cloce, Ir. Gael. clog, bell, clock, Welsh, Corn. cloch, Manx clagg, bell). A mechanical instrument for measuring and indicating the time of day, usually by a mechanism consisting of two distinct portions: First, a train or succession of toothed wheels for transmission to a definite point of a motive force, produced by a weight or spring; and, second, an escapement to regulate the expenditure of this

motive force with uniformity and requisite slowness. A watch is simply a portable clock, to be worn on the person, in which the motive force is a spring. A marine chronometer is a watch of unusual size, constructed and mounted with especial care, for determining longitude at sea. See WATCH; CHRONOMETER,

HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. Among the predecessors of the clock, as time-measurers, are the sun-dial. the clepsydra or water-clock, and the hour-glass. (See DIAL; CLEPSYDRA; HOURGLASS.) The clepsydra was a graduated transparent vase, in which water trickled through a hole in the bottom at such a rate that the receding water marked the passage of time. In the hour-glass sand was substituted for water. Among Eastern nations a great many curious mechanical devices were introduced into the construction of the clepsydra: the water was made to flow in tears from the eyes of automata; a floating statue, falling with the liquid, pointed to the passing hours, as indicated on the side of the glass; finally, a mechanism was introduced by which the water, as it fell, drop by drop, turned a little wheel, which moved the hands on the face of a dial, and so marked the hour. The next step was the construction of a time-indicator, whose hands were moved by the action of falling weights instead of that of falling water. When this step was taken, and the first true clock constructed, is uncertain. Its invention is claimed by many peoples, from the Chinese, B.C. 2000, to the Germans of the eleventh century. Certain it is that clocks were in general use in churches and monasteries throughout the latter part of the Middle Ages, and that these ancient tower-clocks were the progenitors of all our modern timekeepers.

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The oldest clock of which we have a complete description was set up in the tower of the palace of Charles V. of France, in 1379, by a German named Henry De Vick. This primitive clock was constructed on the mechanical principle which is the basis of all modern timekeepers. This principle, as formulated by E. A. Marsh, is "that the power stored up in a raised weight or coiled spring shall be communicated to a train of wheels which are set revolving, and that the force or motion shall be cut up into a succession of minute but equal impulses by converting a rotary into a vibratory motion. The last and quickest

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nto the backward and forward motion." The accompanying sketch of De Vick's clock is useful not only from its historical interest, but also because, from its comparative simplicity, it will form a groundwork for further explanation of the mechanism of clocks in their more complicated form. It will be readily understood, from a glance at the annexed figure (Fig. 1), that as the weight A tends to uncoil the cord and set in motion the cylinder B round its axis, the motion will be successively communicated to the various toothed wheels in the figure, and finally to the crown-wheel or escapement wheel, I; the teeth of which so act on the two small levers or pallets, bb, projecting from and forming part of the suspended upright spindle or vertical axis, KM, on which is fixed the regulator balance, LL, that an alternating or vibratory instead of a circular motion of the balance itself is the result. The hands of the clock are attached to the wheel N, also set in motion by the cylinder B. BALANCE AND ESCAPE Now, unless there were some check upon the motion, it is manifest that the heavy weight A would go rapidly to the ground, causing the wheels to rotate, the balance to vibrate, and the hands to go round with increasing velocity. In order to prevent this rapid unwinding of the clockwork, and adjust it to the more deliberate measurement of time, the balance is, in De Vick's clock, loaded with two weights, m, m;

FIG. 2.

MENT OF THE FIRST CLOCK. P P, Pallets.

Scape Wheel

or

and the farther these are removed from the axis or spindle, KM, the more heavily they will resist and counteract the escapement of the levers, and the rapidity of the rotation of the escape ment-wheel, till the clock be brought to go neither too quick nor too slow.

decrease in its speed will not change the number of vibrations it makes in a given time, but only the length of the arc it describes. This law of the pendulum was discovered by Galileo, and was first applied (probably) to clockwork by Huygens, about 1657. The two accompanying cuts show how the horizontal swing of the balance, as maintained in De Vick's clock, was converted into the vertical swing of the pendulum. By taking off one of the weights and hanging the balance in an upright position, it becomes a pendulum. Ten years later Dr. Hooke invented an escapement which enabled a weaker support to carry a heavier pendulum. Subsequent improvements in the escapement and pendulum (see ESCAPEMENT; PENDULUM), and in the use of the spring (see WATCH) in place of the pendulum, have brought the mechanism of timekeepers down to the present degree of perfection.

STRIKING APPARATUS. The principal function of a clock, according to the medieval conception, was that it should be a reliable instrument for automatically calling out the hours, particularly the hours for devotion. This conception of the clock is shown in the word itself, which originally meant 'bell'-a meaning which has been retained in the French word cloche. A striking apparatus was, therefore, early invented, and it is interesting to note that the striking mechanism of De Vick's clock is similar to that used in some modern timepieces. A striking clock contains one or more extra trains of wheels to control the striker. In De Vick's clock twelve pins projected from the wheel on which the hand was attached. At each hour one of these pins, by pushing a lever, released the striking-train, which lifted the hammer that strikes the bell. The number of strokes was determined by the position of the notches around the edge of a locking-plate, which held the lever controlling the striking-train. These notches were so placed that at one o'clock the catch in the lever entered a notch as soon as one blow had been struck. At two o'clock there was a longer space before the notch was reached, SO that the bell was struck twice; at three o'clock the bell struck three times before the train was locked, and so on. The chief objection to this striking apparatus is that it is thrown out of order and strikes wrong every time the clock happens

Upon this simple plan it is probable that all clocks were to run down. constructed until the seventeenth century, when the principle of the pendulum was apFIG. 3. DE VICK'S OLD BAL- plied to the science of horology. The prop erty of a pendulum known as its isochronism (q.v.) constitutes its value to clock-mechanism-that, when a suspended body is swinging, any increase or

ANCE CONVERTED INTO THE PENDULUM. pp, Pallets.

VOL. V.-4.

The rack and snail repeating mechanism has been used for two centuries. It is a peculiar and intricate piece of mechanism. In ordinary clocks, the impelling power is a weight similar to that which moves the time-measuring mechanism itself; but the pressure of this weight on the striking machinery is only permitted to come into play at stated periods in course of the workings of the timekeeping apparatus-viz. at

FIG. 4. DR. HOOKE'S ESCAPEMENT.

the completion of every hour; when the minutewheel, which revolves once in an hour, and carries the minute-hand of the clock along with it, brings it into action by the temporary release of a catch or detent, permitting the weight wound up on the cylinder of the striking apparatus to run down a little, in doing which the hammer is forced into action, so as to strike the bell. Whether the strokes shall be one or many is determined principally by two pieces of mechanism, one called a 'snail,' from its form or outline, with twelve steps, and the other a 'rack,' with twelve teeth. The time during which the striking-weight is allowed to descend varies according to the turning of the twelve steps of the snail on its axis, and the position of the twelve teeth of the rack at different hours of the day, being sometimes only long enough to permit one blow to be given by the hammer on the bell, and at another time long enough for twelve such blows.

It is not known when the alarm or when the striking mechanism of the clock was first applied. The alarm was adopted for the use of the priesthood, to arouse them to their morning devotions. The first striking clock probably announced the hour by a single blow, as they still do, to avoid noise in churches. During the seventeenth century there existed a great taste for striking clocks, and hence a great variety of them. Several of Tompion's clocks not only struck the quarters on eight bells, but also the hour after each quarter; at 12 o'clock 44 blows were struck, and between 12 and 1 no fewer than 113. Many struck the hour twice, like that of Saint Clement Danes, in the Strand, London. Before the fifteenth century chimes had been introduced. (See CHIMES; also an article in the Journal of the Society of Arts (London, March 29, 1901), on "Clocks, Carillons, and Bells.")

CLOCKS PROVIDED WITH AUTOMATONS. The desire to construct clocks which shall perform automatically many other things besides simply recording the time of day is as old as clockmaking, and was developed to a wonderful degree in the ancient clepsydræ of Oriental nations. Indeed, the automatons of the ancient Chinese and Arabian clocks were the models upon which all those of medieval Europe, including the famous Strassburg clock, were based. Among the earliest of these automatons or 'jacks of the clock' built in the tower-clocks of Europe were those of the clocks at Dijon, Cambrai, and Linden, in each of which two figures appear and strike the hourly bell. In 1495 the clock at Lübeck was built in which the figures of the Twelve Apostles were introduced.

Probably the most widely known of these tower-clocks is the one in Strassburg Cathedral. This famous clock has been reconstructed twice. The first Strassburg clock was built in 1352, under the direction of John, Bishop of Lichtenberg. It contained a calendar, an astrolabe, and a set of chimes composed of several cymbals. There were automatic figures of the Virgin, of the three Wise Men who bow before her, and a cock, which moves its beak, crows, and flaps its wings. The second Strassburg clock was built in 1570. Its mechanical works were constructed by Isaak and Josias Habrecht, of Schaffhausen, Switzerland. Early in the nineteenth century it was found that the clock required reconstruction, and the task was consigned to Charles

Schwilgué, who consumed four years in its completion. Only a few of the original movements were restored by Schwilgué, most of the present mechanism being of his own design.

The following description of the present Strassburg clock indicates its most important features: It is 30 feet high and 15 feet at the base. On one side of the main portion is a flight of winding stairs, surmounted by five columns. On the other side is a Gothic pillar, the panels of which are filled with figure paintings. At the base of the main

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FIG. 5. STRASSBURG CATHEDRAL CLOCK.

portion of the clock is a celestial globe, indicating sidereal time, and showing the rising, passing over the meridian of Strassburg, and setting of all stars that appear above the horizon, visible to the naked eye. Behind the globe is a calendar, showing the day of the month and the fixed and movable feasts. A statue of Apollo points out the day of the month. The calendar is in the form of an annular band, so arranged as to show many other astronomical events besides the day of the month. Above the cal

endar are figures drawn in chariots, one appearing each day. On Sunday Apollo appears, drawn by horses of the sun. On Monday Diana, emblem of the moon, drawn by stags, appears. She is succeeded in turn by Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus, Cupid, and Saturn. Above these figures is the dial which tells the time of day. On each side of this dial sits a figure, one of which strikes the quarter-hours, and the other holds an hourglass, and turns it every sixty miutes. The next story is devoted to a planetarium, and the next is a globe for showing the phases of the moon. Above this are movable figures, which in succession strike the quarter-hour. The first figure is an infant, which strikes the bell with a rattle; the second is a youth; the third an old man; the fourth is a figure of death, which strikes the bell with a bone. In the highest compartment is a figure of Christ. Each day at noon a procession of the Apostles passes before Him; while a cock, perched above, appears and flaps its wings and crows three times.

The clock at Beauvais, France, is almost as wonderful a piece of mechanism as the Strassburg clock. It is composed of 14 different movements, includes 90,000 different pieces, and weighs 35,000 pounds. There are about 50 dials for indicating different astronomical events. The clock is 36 feet high, 16 feet broad, and nearly 9 feet deep.

The clock in Lyons Cathedral is much like the Strassburg clock. The old clock of Prague was built by one Harausch; and so jealous were the citizens of Prague lest he should build a similar clock in some other city-so the story goesthat they put out his eyes. This clock also contains various mechanical figures. The hour is rung by a skeleton, with the bell-rope in his hands.

Another monumental clock is that in the clocktower on the Piazza San Marco, Venice. Α Madonna sits on a platform between two doors overlaid with gold. When the time for certain religious festivals occurs, an angel comes out from one of these doors, blows a trumpet, bows to the Virgin, and passes out at the other door. The hour is struck by two giants.

Belfry clocks with automatons began to wane in popularity during the seventeenth century, and very few have been constructed since. Houseclocks with automatons were first made in the fifteenth century; but the height of their popularity was during the Renaissance, when wonderful skill and great artistic talent were expended in their construction. A favorite design for these clocks was that of a ship, whose crew performed numerous automatic functions. Perhaps the most beautiful as well as famous of these automatons is the ship-clock of Charles V. of France, now in the Cluny Museum. This clock was mounted upon rollers, on which its mechanism caused it to advance and recede. Another favorite design was a mounted huntsman, who, at the stroke of the hour, moved his head and arms, while the head and tail of the horse also moved. During the eighteenth century clocks with mechanically singing birds were popular. Within recent years automaton house-clocks have come to be regarded as interesting examples of mechanical ingenuity and skill, to be occasionally produced and admired, rather than as necessary or desirable articles of furniture.

The United States has produced its share of

automaton clocks, though most of them have been smaller than the great tower-clocks of Europe. The 'Rittenhouse clock,' made in 1767 by David Rittenhouse, of Philadelphia, has six dials, each marking off different astronomical events. The 'Columbus clock,' made by a citizen of Columbus, Ohio, is 18 feet wide and 11 feet high. Like the clocks already described, this one records many astronomical events; in addition, miniature figures perform various movements. Three towns of Pennsylvania-Donaldson, Hazleton, and Wilkesbarre - have possessed citizens who have added to their fame by their remarkable clocks.

In 1880 a clock was placed on exhibition in New York that was a striking illustration of the elaborateness to which clockwork may be carried. It was the work of Felix Meyer, who spent more than ten years in its construction. The clock is 18 feet high, 8 feet wide, and 5 feet deep. It has 2000 wheels, runs by 700-pound weights, and is wound up once in twelve days. When the clock is in operation, it shows the local time in hours, minutes, and seconds; the difference in time at Chicago, Washington, San Francisco, Melbourne, Pekin, Cairo, Constantinople, Saint Petersburg, Vienna, London, Berlin, and Paris; the day of the week, calendar day of the month, month and season of the year, the signs of the zodiac, revolutions of the earth on its own axis and around the sun; also the phases of the moon and the movement of the planets around the sun. The quarter-hour is struck by an infant, the half-hour by a youth, the three-quarter by an old man, and the hour by death, as in the Strassburg clock. As the hour strikes, a figure of Washington rises from a chair and extends its right hand, presenting the Declaration of Independence. A door is opened by a servant, and all the Presidents, as far as and including Hayes, each dressed in the costume of his time, advance across the platform, salute Washington, and retire through another door.

TOWER-CLOCKS. As already pointed out, the earliest European clocks were all tower-clocks -the house or 'chamber' clock being a later invention, closely connected with the invention of watches. Among the early clock-builders, ingenuity and complication of mechanism, as displayed in the automatons, was considered of more importance than accuracy as a timekeeper; but within recent years much scientific skill has been used to construct tower-clocks which, in spite of their enormous size and great height, with the accompanying atmospheric disturbances at so great a distance from the earth, shall still be accurate timekeepers.

One of the largest clocks in the world is the 'Westminster clock,' in the British House of Parliament, which was put in operation in 1860. Its four dials, situated 180 feet above the ground, are 22 feet in diameter. Each minute-hand is 14 feet long, and the hour-figures on the clock are 2 feet long. The pendulum is 13% feet long, and weighs 700 pounds. There are 5 bells, weighing respectively 21 ewt., 26 cwt., 331⁄2 ewt., 78 cwt., and 13 tons 11 cwt., for striking the first, second, and third quarters and the hour. These bells are hung from massive wrought-iron framing, in a chamber above the dial. The larg est. the hour-bell, popularly known as 'Big Ben,' is 9 feet in diameter, and is struck by a hammer

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