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and eye-strain. The conjunctiva is red and smooth, the secretion is but slightly increased. FOLLICULAR CONJUNCTIVITIS. This is an obstinate form of chronic catarrhal conjunctivitis, and may be recognized by the small follicles or granular swellings which form under its influence upon the lower lids. It closely resembles trachoma (see Granular Conjunctivitis, below), commonly caled 'granular lids,' and some even maintain that they are identical. Those who differ from this opinion assert that the follicles in follicular conjunctivitis disappear after a few weeks' treatment, while in trachoma there are persistent changes in the conjunctiva.

ACUTE PURULENT CONJUNCTIVITIS OF ADULTS, or Gonorrhoeal Ophthalmia. This differs from ratarrhal conjunctivitis in the severity of its symptoms and in its exciting causes. It is a violent form of inflammation of the conjunctiva; is accompanied with a thick, purulent discharge on the second or third day, and is very apt to occasion loss of vision. It begins with the same symptoms as catarrhal ophthalmia, but in a very exaggerated form. The conjunctiva rapidly becomes intensely red, and soon appears raised from the sclerotic by the effusion of serum between them, projecting around the cornea, which remains buried, as it were, in a pit. Similar effusion takes place beneath the mucous membrane lining the eyelids, causing them to project forward in large, livid, convex masses, which often entirely conceal the globe of the eye. These symptoms are accompanied by severe burning pain, tenderness of the eye, some constitutional symptoms, and slight fever. When the disease is unchecked, it is liable to produce ulceration or sloughing of the cornea, with the escape of the aqueous humor and protrusion of the iris; and, even when these results do not follow, vision is often destroyed by permanent opacity of the

cornea.

The disease is unquestionably contagious, and arises from the application of gonorrheal discharge or matter to the surface of the eye; and hence is most common in persons suffering from the disease from which this variety obtains its specific name. It may be conveyed directly to the eye, or by means of towels or other articles used by such a person. It is, moreover, often occasioned by the disgusting practice, adopted by the poorer classes, of bathing the eyes in human urine, under the idea that by this procedure they strengthen the sight.

PURULENT CONJUNCTIVITIS OF INFANTS, or Ophthalmia Neonatorum. This usually appears about the third day after birth. Its importance is apt to be overlooked until it has made considerable progress. The edges of the lids appear red and glued together, and the eye, when the lids are separated, shows redness and swelling of the conjunctiva. The disease, if not checked, progresses in much the same way as in adults. It is, however, much more amenable to treatment, and with proper care the sense of sight is seldom impaired, provided the disease has not extended to the cornea before medical aid is sought. Ophthalmia neonatorum is the result of gonorrheal infection of the eyes from the mother during birth. It is practically preventable by the use of Crede's method of cleansing the eyes immediately after birth, and putting one drop of a 2 per cent. solution of silver nitrate into each eye. This is a routine practice in many of the

maternity hospitals, and has done much in these institutions, and among the better classes, to diminish the frequency of the affection.

The treatment of purulent conjunctivitis must be left entirely to a competent physician, whose advice should be sought as soon as there is the slightest suspicion of the nature of the case.

DIPHTHERITIC CONJUNCTIVITIS and CROUPOUS CONJUNCTIVITIS. These are forms caused by the bacillus of diphtheria.

PHLYCTENULAR CONJUNCTIVITIS, called also Pustular Conjunctivitis, or Scrofulous Ophthal mia. This occurs in children, especially of the lower classes, who suffer from the tuberculous or so-called scrofulous diathesis or constitution. The most prominent symptom is extreme intolerance of light, the lids being kept spasmodically closed. When they are forcibly separated, a slight vascularity, usually stopping at the edge of the cornea, is observed, and at or about the line of separation between the cornea and sclerotic small opaque pimples or pustules appear. The treatment consists (1) in improving the general health, and (2) in local applications. This form of disease, being dependent on constitutional causes, is often very obstinate, and is always liable to recur.

GRANULAR CONJUNCTIVITIS, or Trachoma, popularly known as 'granular lids.' This is a contagious affection of the eye, conveyed by means of the secretion. The contagion is most frequently carried by towels, etc., used in common by many persons, and so the disease is found chiefly in crowded and dirty houses, in schools, barracks, etc. It occurs very frequently in Arabia, Egypt, and the lowlands of Europe. In this country the negro race is comparatively seldom affected by it. The disease has been called Egyptian ophthalmia on account of its importation into Europe from Egypt during the wars of Napoleon. The Irish and Jews are especially liable to the affection. It is accompanied by a varying degree of dread of light, itching and burning of the lids, pain, flow of tears, and trouble with sight. The lids are swollen, the upper drooping; there is a variable amount of muco-purulent discharge. The conjunctiva of the lids and fornix, or fold between lids and eyeballs is red, thickened, and covered with many small papillæ, or velvety elevations, or by granules which are round, translucent, and yellow or grayish. After a time, scar tissue forms and the papilla and granules disappear. The disease may be acute, but usually begins gradually and lasts for years. It is believed by some that the cases in which the granulations give few or no symptoms, and there are no signs of inflammation, are not contagious. The dangerous complications are ulceration of the cornea alone or accompanying a condition known as pannus. In the latter, new tissue containing blood-vessels gradually forms until the upper half of the cornea is covered, occasionally the whole. If this disappears later, sight will be restored; otherwise, the new tissue causes permanent opacity, an accident which may also result from corneal ulceration. Entropion (q.v.), trichiasis (q.v.), or ectropion (q.v.), or symblepharon, a cicatricial adhesion of the conjunctiva of the lid to that of the eyeball, may follow trachoma.

The treatment of trachoma may require either local applications or surgical interference. Prevention is most important. Persons having the

disease should exercise great care that others may not use their towels or other toilet articles, which might serve to convey it; and in public institutions cases should be carefully watched for and isolated.

CONJURY (from conjure, OF., Fr. conjurer, from Lat. conjurare, to swear together, from com-, together jurare, to swear, from jus, law). Incantation, bewitchment, or magic. Specifically, the casting of spells, or evil enchantment, characteristic of Afro-American folk-lore. See MAGIC; MAN, SCIENCE OF.

CONKLING, ROSCOE (1829-88). An American politician. He was born at Albany, and after receiving an academic education, at the age of 17 began the study of law in the office of Spencer and Kernan at Utica. His first identification with politics was in 1848, when he won some reputation as a campaign speaker by making a number of speeches in behalf of Taylor

and Fillmore. In 1850 he was admitted to the bar, and in the same year became district attorney of Albany County by appointment of Governor Fish. In 1852 he returned to Utica, where in the next few years he established a reputation as a lawyer of ability. Up to 1852. in which year he stumped the State for Gen. Winfield Scott, the Whig candidate for the Presidency, Conkling was identified with the Whig Party, but in the movement that resulted in the organization of the Republican Party he took an active part, and his work, both as a political manager and an orator, contributed largely toward carrying the State for Frémont and Dayton, the Republican nominees, in 1856. In 1858 he was elected Mayor of Utica, and in the same year was chosen a Representative in Congress, serving throughout the period of the Civil War, except in the Thirty-eighth Congress (1863-65), during which interval he acted as a Judge-Advocate of the War Department. He was again a member of Congress in 1865-67. In his career in the House of Representatives, Conkling won national distinction as a debater and orator. He was an enthusiastic supporter of the Lincoln administration in its conduct of the war, but vigorously opposed the passage of the Legal Tender Act in 1862. He was a member of the Committee of Ways and Means, and the Special Committee of Fifteen on Reconstruction, delivering one of the strongest speeches in support of the Fourteenth Amendment. His renown as an orator and prominence in the legislative councils of the Republican Party secured him in 1867, at the age of thirty-eight, an election to the United States Senate to succeed Judge Ira Ilarris. Conkling's career in the Senate was brilliant, but, like all the rest of his political life, erratic and marked by strong personal likes and dislikes, by which, rather than by the welfare of the nation or of his party, he was frequently controlled. Through the eight years of Grant's administration he stood out as the spokesman of the President and one of the principal leaders of the Republican Party in the Senate. He was active in framing and pushing through Congress the reconstruction legislation, and was instrumental in the passage of the second Civil Rights Act, in 1875, and of the act for the resumption of specie payments, in the same year. In the Republican National Convention at Cincinnati in 1876, Conkling first appeared as a Presidential candidate, receiving 93 votes. He was one of the framers of the bill

creating the Electoral Commission to decide the disputed election of 1876, but, when its judgment was announced, declined to vote for its affirmation. Himself an opponent of civil-service reform, Conkling was entirely out of sympathy with the reform element in the Republican Party. The first break with the administration occurred in April, 1877, when the Secretary of the Treasury, John Sherman, appointed a commission to investigate the affairs of the Custom House. The investigation brought to light extensive irregularities in the service, showing in particular that the Federal office-holders in New York constituted a large army of political workers, and that their positions were secured by and dependent upon their faithful service in behalf of the men holding the principal Government offices in the city. President Hayes decided upon the removal of Chester A. Arthur, the Collector; Gen. George H. Sharpe, of the Port, and in October, 1877, sent nominathe Surveyor, and A. B. Cornell, the Naval Officer tions of their successors to the Senate. Senator

Conkling defended the displaced officials, and, through his influence in the Senate, secured the rejection of the new nominations. He succeeded in blocking all the efforts of President Hayes and Secretary Sherman until January, 1879, when, a new lot of nominations having been made, they were confirmed in spite of Conkling's continued opposition. Early in 1880 Senator Conkling became the leader of the movement for the nomination of General Grant for a third term in the Presidency. How much of his advocacy was due to his regard for Grant, and how much to his hostility to the other leading two candidates, Sherman, with whom he had come into conflict

during Hayes's administration, and Blaine, whose for twenty-four years, can never be known. The bitter political and personal enemy he had been convention, by a combination of the Blaine and Sherman interests, nominated James A. Garfield. Conkling and the famous '306' remained faithful to Grant to the last, and were allowed to name the candidate for Vice-President. The result emphasized Conkling's hostility toward Blaine, and eventually led to the former's quarrel with Garfield and consequent retirement from political life. Immediately after Garfield's inauguration, Conkling presented to the President a list of men whom he desired to have appointed to the Federal Garfield's appointment of Blaine as Secretary of State, and of Windom as Secretary of the Treasury, instead of Levi P. Morton, whose appointment Conkling had urged, angered Conkling and made him unwilling to agree to any sort of compromise with Garfield on the New York appointments. Without consulting him, the President nominated for Collector at New York William H. Robertson, an anti-Conkling man.

offices in New York.

Roberston's nomination was confirmed by the Senate, in spite of the opposition of Conkling, who claimed the right of Senators to control Federal patronage in their States. Conkling and his colleague, Thomas C. Platt, immediately resigned their seats in the Senate, and appealed to the New York Legislature to justify their course by reëlecting them. After an exciting canvass, Conkling and Platt were defeated, and Warner Miller and E. G. Lapham were chosen in their stead. The remainder of his life Conkling spent in the practice of law in New York City. In 1882 he was nominated by his friend, President Arthur, to succeed Ward

Hunt as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, but he declined. Consult: Life and Letters, edited by A. R. Conkling (New York, 1889).

CONN. An irresponsible, gay-spirited fellow, the leading character in Dion Boucicault's play The Shaughran.

CONN, HERBERT WILLIAM (1859-). An American zoologist and bacteriolgist, born at Fitchburg, Mass. He took his baccalaureate degree at the Boston University and his doctorate at Johns Hopkins University, and soon afterwards became professor of biology at Wesleyan University in Connecticut. From 1889 to 1897 he was director of the Marine Biological Laboratory at Cold Spring Harbor, L. I. He is considered an authority on the bacteriology of dairy products, in connection with which he has published many papers, usually under the auspices of the Agricultural Station at Storrs, Conn. His works include: Evolution of To-day (1886); The Living World (1891); The Study of Germ-Life (1897); Classification of Dairy Bacteria (1899); The Method of Evolution (1900).

CONNAUGHT, kõnʼnạt (Ir. Connacht). The northwestern and smallest of the four provinces of Ireland, bounded north and west by the Atlantic, east by Ulster and Leinster, and south by Munster (Map: Ireland, B 3). It contains the counties of Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo. Area, 6845 square miles. Population, in 1841, 1,420,900; in 1891, 719,500; in 1901, 646,932.

CONNAUGHT. ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, Duke of, Prince of the United Kingdom (1850-). The third son of Queen Victoria. He entered the Military Academy at Woolwich in 1866, and in 1880 became a general of brigade. He was created Duke of Connaught and Strathearn and Earl of Sussex in 1874, and took his seat in the House of Lords. He served in Egypt in 1882, became a general in 1893, and from 1893 to 1898 was in charge of the permanent camp at Aldershot. In 1896 he represented Queen Victoria at the coronation of the Czar Nicholas II., and in 1903 was the representative of Edward VII. at the coronation durbar at Delhi. He succeeded Lord Roberts as commander-in-chief of the forces in Ireland in 1900, became field-marshal in 1902 and inspectorgeneral of the forces in 1904.

CONNEAUT, kōn'nê-at'. A city on Conneaut Creek, Ashtabula County, Ohio, near the Pennsylvania line, 68 miles by rail northeast of Cleveland, and noted as the landing-place of the first white setters of northern Ohio in 1766 (Map: Ohio, J 2). It is on the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern; the New York, Chicago and Saint Louis; and the Bessemer and Lake Erie railroads, and has a good harbor at the mouth of the creek, where there is a lighthouse. It is an important ore and coal port, being noted for its exceptional facilities for handling large cargoes. There are extensive railroad shops and manufactories of canned goods, self-sealing packages, bricks, lumber, etc. Conneaut also exports molding sand and farm produce. The electric-light plant is owned and operated by the city, which was first incorporated in 1832. It is governed by a mayor, elected biennially, assisted by a council. Population, in 1890, 3241; 1900, 7133; 1905 (local census), 8614.

VOL. V.-20.

CONNECTICUT, kon-nět'i-kut (Algonquin Quinni-tuk-ut, long river). One of the original thirteen States of the United States; a north Atlantic Coast State and the southwesternmost

of the New England States (Map: United States, L 2). It is included between latitudes 40° 59′ and 42° 3' N. and longitudes 71° 47′ and 73° 43′ W., and is bounded on the north by Massachusetts, on the east by Rhode Island, on the south by Long Island Sound, and on the west by New York. It has an extreme length from east to west of nearly 105 miles, and an average length of south of 76 miles, and an average width of 57 about 95 miles; an extreme width from north to miles, with a total area of 4965 square miles, of which 145 square miles are water surface and Connecticut is one of the smallest States in the 4845 square miles, or 3,100,800 acres, are land. Union, only two States being smaller, but it ranks twenty-ninth in population. The boundary lines between Connecticut and the adjoining States are somewhat irregular, since they depend on old grants and surveys which were very unsystematic.

TOPOGRAPHY. The highland region, which commences in Vermont in the Green Mountains and continues across Massachusetts in the Berkshire Hills, descends into Connecticut, at first with considerable height; but southward it gradually loses its mountainous character, and as Long Island Sound is approached it is represented by low hills only. In this hill country, the streams flow in most cases in narrow valleys. East of this region is the broad valley of the Connecticut, with an altitude of less than 100 feet at the north boundary of the State, and less than 500 feet over a breadth of 25 miles. The river leaves this depression at Middletown, the depression continuing southwestward to the coast at New Haven, while the river flows southeastward through a hill country to its mouth at Saybrook. The eastern part of the State is hilly, with altitudes exceeding 1000 feet near the northern boundary, and diminishing in height southward. Here also most of the streams flow in narrow, deep valleys.

In former geologic times the area of Connecticut is believed to have formed a part of the southern slope of a great mountain mass, whose summits are perhaps indicated by the present White, Green, and Adirondack mountains. Longcontinued erosion of streams and perhaps of ice reduced this region to a plain, with low relief and shallow stream valleys. A comparatively recent tilting of the land has slightly depressed the coast and elevated the interior. This has revived the cutting power of the streams, which are now actively eroding their valleys, most of them in hard rocks, in which slow prog ress is made. The Connecticut Valley is, how ever, largely of relatively softer rocks, which have been eroded away with greater rapidity. In recent geologic times the area of the State was covered by the Laurentian glacier, which did much erosion and deposition, scouring out lake basins, and thus forming the multitude of little lakes and ponds which diversify the surface, and modifying the streams' courses, producing rapids and falls, now utilized for water-power.

Among the highest points in Connecticut are Bear Mountain, 2355 feet; Gridley Mountain, 2200 feet; Riga Mountain, all in Salisbury; Branford Mountain, in Canaan, 1927; Dutton Mountain, 1620 feet, and Mount Ball, 1760, in

Norfolk; Above All Mountain, 1456, in Warren; Ivy Mountain, in Goshen, 1640 feet; and Ellsworth Hill, 1580 feet, in Sharon. The coast of Connecticut is very broken and irregular, and consists of a succession of rocky points and gravel or sandy beaches. It possesses a number of good harbors, and the larger rivers have estuary-like mouths. The coast waters are shallow, but usually deep enough to permit the near approach to land of vessels. Numerous small rocky islands skirt the shores; the largest island on this coast being Fisher's Island, off the mouth of the Thames, which, while geographically belonging to the Connecticut coast, politically belongs to New York.

The hydrography of Connecticut is simple in general outline, the streams as a whole following the slope of land from the north toward the south. Since this slope is but a continuation from the higher land to the north, the main streams rise north of the Connecticut boundary and the waters flow in a generally southerly direction across the State and empty into Long Island Sound. There are three main river systems: the Housatonic-Naugatuck in the west; the Connecticut in the middle; and the Thames in the east. The streams tributary to these main rivers are numerous, and some of them of considerable size. In the southern part of the State there are many small streams which have a southerly direction and flow straight to the Sound. The three main rivers receive the drain age of a comparatively small portion of this coast area. The small streams are in few cases more than 25 miles in length in a direct course, except the Quinnipiac, which enters New Haven Harbor, and which has its source well within the Connecticut depression. The Connecticut water-courses have in general deeply cut their path through the highlands, so that on the main streams the fall is less than might be expected from the neighboring elevations. The smaller streams, however, and the larger ones in their upper courses, furnish an enormous water

power.

CLIMATE AND SOIL. In Connecticut the average annual temperature decreases from about 50° F. on the southern coast to about 48° in the northeastern part and 46° in the northwest. In midwinter the average temperatures decrease from about 30° along the southern coast to 24° in the northern part. In all portions of the State the temperature usually descends below zero at times during the winter, and may even fall as low as -10° or -15° F. In midsummer the average temperature is about 72° along the southern coast, but increases to 74° in the middle interior, and decreases again to about 70° in the northwest. During the summer extreme temperatures ranging from 90° to 100° F. may be expected in all parts of the State.

The prevailing winds in Connecticut are from the westward. In the winter the prevailing wind throughout most of the State is from the northwest, and in midsummer from the southwest throughout the State. The general or prevailing southwest winds during the summer months considerably lessen the land temperatures on the southern coast and to some distance inland, while the prevailing northwest winds during the winter carry the inland cold air to the coast. The relative humidity varies from 70 to 80 per

cent., and is greater in winter and less in the spring than at other times of year. Throughout most of the State the average rainfall during the year is from 45 to 50 inches. The precipitation is quite evenly distributed over the entire year; on the average a little more than 5 inches falls during each of the spring and summer months and a little over 4 inches during each of the fall and winter months. The snowfall varies very much from year to year, but on an average for a series of years about 40 inches fall on the southern coast, and there is a rather regular increase toward the northern part of the State to 50 inches in the northeast corner and to 60 inches in the northwest corner.

The valley land of Connecticut is usually a rich alluvial deposit, which has left the hill land rather thin in soil and barren, but nevertheless still of great value for fruit, grass, and pasture. The northern part of the Connecticut River Valley, as far south as Middletown, has a rich, deep, loamy soil, often with a clay subsoil. In the southern part of the State, however, and along the coast, the soil is sandy. In the southwest there is a dark argillaceous soil, and in the northeast a light gray loam.

For flora and fauna, see paragraphs under UNITED STATES.

GEOLOGY. The great valley which extends northward from New Haven to the Massachusetts boundary is occupied by a belt 5 to 18 miles in width, of Triassic sandstone, broken through in places by trap-rocks. East and west of this valley crystalline rocks, including granite, gneiss, schist, slate, and limestone, predominate. In the northwestern part of the State these rocks are of metamorphic origin and represent the altered product of Ordovician strata, while the granite and gneiss in the eastern and southern parts probably belong to the Archæan. The whole State lies within the region of glacial drift, and a heavy mantle of sands, gravels, and boulder clay rests upon the rock formations.

MINERAL RESOURCES. Tungsten ore is mined near Long Hill, in Trumbull township, but there are no other metallic mines in operation at present, although copper, lead, and iron ores are known to occur. The granite outcrops on Long Island Sound yield a good quality of buildingstone, and feldspar is produced at Branchville and South Glastonbury. Portland is noted for its quarries of brownstone (sandstone), large quantities of which have been consumed for building purposes in the large cities on the Atlantic Coast. Marble, limestone, and clay are also produced at various localities. For a long series of years Connecticut has produced granite, limestone, and sandstone in quantities varying in aggregate value from a half-million to a million dollars per annum. Connecticut contains the oldest iron-mines in the United States, the Salisbury Mine having been opened in 1732. The Connecticut mines and furnaces furnished valuable supplies of cannon-balls, shells, etc., for the Continental forces during the War of the Revolu tion.

FISHERIES. The State ranks third among the New England States in the value of its fisheries. Their importance has changed but little in recent years. In 1902 there were 2840 persons engaged in the industry, in which there was invested $1,201,055, and the product of which was valued at $1,799,381, an amount which surpassed the

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