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CLEAVAGE (from cleave, AS. cleofan, Ger. klieben, to cleave, Lat. glubere, to peel, Gk. yλúpav, glyphein, to hollow out). In geology, a property induced, under certain conditions, during deformation in a rock by virtue of which the rock may be readily split into parallel layers or rods, i.e. parallel to a plane or line. It is a property possessed also by certain original gneisses that have not undergone deformation since their first solidification. Cleavage, in rare cases, may be parallel to planes of bedding that may be present in the rock-mass. The essential condition of rock-cleavage is a parallel dimensional arrangement of the constituent mineral particles of the rock. In certain minerals, such as mica, parallel dimensional arrangement carries with it a parallelism of the mineral cleavage. The cleavage of a rock may be observed to occur parallel to the greater diameters of the mineral particles, or to the parallel mineralcleavages. When the two coincide, as in the case of mica, the rock-cleavage produced is parallel to one plane. Where they do not coincide, two rock-cleavages may be produced at angles to each other, as in the case of feldspar, although one may be conspicuous and the other obscure. The property of rock-cleavage is observed in rocks that have yielded to pressure by deformation without conspicuous fracture. This deformation can be induced only where the rock is under such great pressure from all sides that it flows rather

than fractures. The planes or lines of rock

cleavage are further observed to be normal to the directions in which the rock-masses have been most shortened.

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A number of processes probably cooperate to induce the parallel arrangement of mineral particles during the shortening of the rock-mass. Chief among these is the recrystallization of old mineral particles and the crystallization of new particles through the agency of contained water. This process results in the elongation of the mineral particles of the rock in the plane or line of greatest elongation of the rock-mass as whole, and in shortening normal to this direction in other words, it results in the flattening of the mineral particles through solution and deposition of mineral material. Other processes which produce rock-cleavage are the rotation into parallel position of previously existing particles whose axes have unequal length, and the flattening in situ of original mineral particles through the process known as gliding-i.e. differential movement along certain definite planes and crystals without fracture. Cleavage is found in almost all varieties of rocks which, under pressure, have been made to flow, although as a rule it is shown to best advantage in the finer-grained rocks. Rocks possessing the property of cleavage are called 'slates' 'schists.'

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BIBLIOGRAPHY. Phillips, "Cleavage and Folia tion in Rocks," in Report of British Association for the Advancement of Science (London, 1856); Heim, Mechanismus der Gebirgsbildung, vol. ii. (Basel, 1878); Tyndall, "Comparative View of the Cleavage of Crystals and Slate-Rocks," in Philosophical Magazine, 4th series, vol. xii. (London, 1856); Daubrée, Géologie expérimentale, vol. i. (Paris, 1879); Van Hise, "Principles of North American Pre-Cambrian Geoloy," in Sixteenth Annual Report of the United States Geological Survey (Washington, 1896).

CLEAVAGE OF CRYSTALS. Most crys tals, owing to the regular arrangement of the molecules, possess directions along which cohesion is at a minimum. They, therefore, tend to fracture along planes normal to these directions, which are called 'planes of cleavage.' The tendency of a crystal to cleave is necessarily the same for any plane as for any other parallel plane; in other words, cleavage-planes have direction rather than position. Cleavage-planes, in their relative perfection and number, conform to the symmetry of the crystal in which they occur. Tendency to cleave along special planes determined in position as well as in direction is described as 'parting.' See CRYSTALLOGRAPHY; MINERALOGY.

CLEAVEʼLAND, MOSES (1754-1806). An American pioneer, the founder of Cleveland, Ohio. He was born in Canterbury, Conn.; practiced law, served in the Revolutionary War, and became a brigadier-general of militia in 1796. In 1795 he joined a number of others in purchasing from Connecticut, for $1,200,000, the tract in Ohio known as the 'Connecticut Western Reserve.' He directed the surveyors who laid out the site of the present Cleveland, which was named after him. The form of the name was altered, in 1831, to Cleveland, by a newspaper editor, who wished to economize space for a headline. CLEAVELAND, PARKER (1780-1858). He was born in distinguished mineralogist. Rowley, Mass.; graduated at Harvard in 1799, was tutor in mathematics there from 1803 to 1805, was chosen professor of mathematics and natural philosophy and lecturer on chemistry and mineralogy in Bowdoin College-a position which he retained until his death, although many professorships in other colleges and the presi dency of his own were offered to him." gathered a valuable collection of minerals, and published a treatise on Mineralogy and Geology (1816, 3d ed. 1856), which earned for him the title of 'Father of American Mineralogy.'

CLEAVERS. See GOOSE-GRASS.

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CLEBSCH, klěpsh, RUDOLF FRIEDRICH ALFRED (1833-72). A German mathematician, born at Königsberg, Prussia. He studied at Königsberg, where he was a pupil of Hesse, Richelot, and F. Neumann. He held the chair of theoretical mechanics at the polytechnic school in Karlsruhe from 1858 to 1863; was made professor of mathematics at Giessen in 1863, and at Göttingen in 1868. His attention was drawn to algebra and geometry by the study of Salmon's works. In 1868 he founded, with Neumann, the Mathematische Annalen. His vast contributions to the theory of invariants; his use of the notion of the deficiency of a curve; his applications of the theory of elliptic and Abelian functions to geometry and to the study of rational and elliptic curves, have secured for him a preeminent place among those who have advanced the science of geometry. His works upon the general theory of algebraic curves and surfaces began with the determination of those points upon an algebraic surface at which a straight line has four-point contact. Clebsch undertook to render the notion of 'deficiency fruitful for geometry-a notion found first in Riemann's Theorie der Abelschen Funktionen (1857). By deficiency' of a curve is meant the difference be tween the number of its double points and the

maximum number possible in such a curve. (See CURVES.) Clebsch and Cremona studied the representation of cubic surfaces on a plane through a one-to-one correspondence-a notion that has led to the study of higher correspondences between surfaces by Cayley (q.v.) and Nöther. Clebsch solved, by aid of the addition theorem of elliptic functions (see FUNCTIONS), the generalized form of Malfatti's Problem. He also solved (1862) the so-called 'Pfaffian Problem' of differential equations, by making it depend upon a system of simultaneous linear partial differential equations whose statement is possible without integration. Clebsch took a leading part in showing the great significance of the theory of invariants for the theory of hyperelliptic and Abelian functions; and to him is due the transformation of the theory of binary to that of ternary forms. (See FORMS.) He died at Göttingen, November 7, 1872. Vol. vii. of the Mathematische Annalen contains an excellent article on Clebsch, in which the value of his works is estimated by Brill, Gordan, Klein, Mayer, Nöther, and other contemporaries. His Vorlesungen über Geometrie were edited by Lindemann (Leipzig, vol. i., 1875-76, vol. ii., 1891).

CLEBURNE. A town and the county-seat of Johnson County, Tex., 54 miles southwest of Dallas, on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe, the Trinity and Brazos Valley, and other railroads (Map: Texas, F 3). It carries on a large trade in grain, live stock, cotton, wool, hides, and produce, and has cotton-compresses, cottonseed-oil mills, flour-mills, foundry and machine-shop, etc.; division offices and shops of the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fe Railroad, and general offices and shops of the Trinity and Brazos Valley Railroad. Population, 1890, 3278; 1900, 7493. Since the 1900 census considerable territory has been annexed to Cleburne, the population, according to a local census taken in 1906, being 13,102.

CLEBURNE, PATRICK RONAYNE (1828-64). An American soldier, prominent as a Confederate officer during the Civil War. He was born in County Cork, Ireland; studied medicine for a time at Trinity College, Dublin; ran away from home, and served for several years in the British Army. In 1855 he emigrated to the United States, and settled in Helena, Ark., where he studied law, was admitted to the bar, and practiced with considerable success. On the outbreak of the Civil War, he enlisted in the Confederate Army as a private, but by March, 1862, rose to the rank of brigadier-general. He commanded a brigade at the battle of Shiloh; was wounded in the battle of Perryville, Ky., on October 8, 1862; was promoted to be major-general in December of that year; was distinguished for gallantry at Murfreesboro, and at Chickamauga led a brilliant charge, and earned the title, "The Stonewall of the West.' In the battle of Missionary Ridge he commanded the right wing of the Confederate army; subsequently took a conspicuous part, as division commander under Johnston, against Sherman, and as a corps commander under Hood, in the Atlanta campaign against Sherman, and later, in the Tennessee campaign against Thomas and Schofield; and at the battle of Franklin, on November 30, 1864, he was killed while leading a charge on the Federal works. He was an organizer of the "Order of the Southern Cross," and was one of the first men in the Confederacy to advo

cate the use of colored troops. Consult the biographical sketch, by General Gordon, in Southern Historical Society Papers, vol. xviii. (Richmond, 1889).

CLECK/HEATON. A town in the West Rid

ing of Yorkshire, England, two and one-half miles southwest of Bradford (Map: England, F 3). It has manufactures of woolens, worsteds, and blankets. Population, in 1891, 11,800; in 1901, 12,500. CLEDON ISMAN'CY. See SUPERSTITION. CLEETHORPE WITH THRUNS/COE. A

progressive town and railway-junction in Lincolnshire, England, two and one-fourth miles east-southeast of Grimsby (Map: England, F 3). It owns a new market and recreationgrounds. There is an electric-lighting plant. Population, in 1891, 4300; in 1901, 12,600.

CLEF (Fr. key, Lat. clavis). A musical symbol placed at the beginning of the staff to fix the pitch of one tone, thus also determining that of all the rest. There are three kinds of clefs, the G, F, and C clefs. always occupy a fixed position, viz.: on the second and fourth lines respectively, and indicate that these notes are g' and f. The C clef may appear upon the first, third, and fourth lines, but the note represented is always c'. The F clef is the oldest. Almost as old is the C clef, both being used in the Eleventh Century. The position of both was chosen to emphasize the semisteps of the fundamental scale (e-f; b-c). During the Fifteenth Century the G clef appeared, originally to denote the transposition of the old church modes a fifth higher, a process which involved the raising of f to f. Thus this clef originally also marked the semistep f-g. It does so still in the modern scale of G. To-day the tendency is to dispense entirely with the C clef, which is only used in orchestral scores in two positions: on the third line for violas, and on the fourth line for celli, bassoons, and trombones. The general use of the C clef in older vocal music (first line, soprano; third, alto; fourth, tenor) was due solely to the fact that ledger-lines were unknown, thus necessitating the shifting of the clef to bring the tones of the voices within the staff. Up to the Seventeenth Century the C clef was used on every line of the staff. In modern vocal music the tenor parts are always written in the G clef, it being understood that the notes thus written are to be sung an octave lower. See MUSICAL NOTATION (the Clefs). CLEFT PALATE. See PALATE.

Of these the two former

CLEISHBOTHAM, klēsh boтH-am, JEDEDIAH. The imaginary 'collector' in Scott's series of novels, Tales of My Landlord. He claims to be schoolmaster and parish clerk of Gandercleuch.

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CLEISTHENES, klis'thê-nēz. See CLISTHENES. CLEISTOG'AMOUS FLOWERS (Gk. kλewTbs.kleistos, that which may be closed, from Kλelev, kleiein, to close + váμos, gamos, riage). Relatively inconspicuous and never-open flowers, which occur, along with the ordinary flowers, in many plants, representing all of the principal alliances of the flowering plants. Cleistogamous flowers are seldom in a conspicuous position. One of the best-known illustrations is in the stemless species of violets. In these, in addition to the well-known conspicuous flowers, cleistogamous flowers occur more or less concealed near the base of the cluster of leaves and

flower-stalks. Since these flowers are never open, they are necessarily self-pollinated; but they are very fertile, and produce an abundance of seed. The significance of this dimorphism in the flowers of so many plants is not clear. It has been suggested that, in case cross-pollination is not secured by the showy flowers, the presence of self-pollinating cleistogamous flowers makes seedproduction secure. However, some plants with cleistogamous flowers, as grasses and rushes, are anemophilous (wind-pollinated), so that it is not a habit entirely related to the uncertainties of pollination by insects. In comparing the development of the cleistogamous and ordinary flowers, it is discovered that the former are like the latter at various stages of development.

The following quotation from Darwin's Dif: ferent Forms of Flowers presents some detailed differences: "In cleistogamous flowers, the petals are rudimentary or quite aborted; their stamens are often reduced in number, with anthers of very small size, containing few pollengrains, which have remarkably thin, transparent coats, and generally emit their tubes while still inclosed within the anther-cells; and, lastly, the pistil is much reduced in size, with the stigma in some cases hardly at all developed. These flowers do not secrete nectar or emit any odor; from their small size, as well as from the corolla being rudimentary, they are singularly inconspicuous. Consequently, insects do not visit them; nor, if they did, could they find an entrance. Such flowers are, therefore, invariably self-fertilized; yet they produce an abundance of seed. In several cases, the young capsules bury themselves beneath the ground, and the seeds are there matured. These flowers are developed before, or after, or simultaneously with the perfect ones."

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flowers (cross-pollination) are said to exhibit cleistogamy. See CLEISTOGAMOUS FLOWERS; POLLINATION.

CLE'LAND, WILLIAM (c.1661-89). An English Covenanting poet. He is supposed to have been born in Lanarkshire, Scotland. After leaving Saint Andrews University, he joined the Covenanters, and at Bothwell Bridge acted as captain. He was afterwards made lieutenantcolonel of the Cameronian Regiment, under Lord Angus Cameron, which was sent to put down the uprising that followed the fall of Claverhouse at Killiecrankie. The Cameronians held out after a whole day's fighting at Dunkeld (August 21, 1689) against heavy odds; but during the action Cleland was killed. He wrote Several Poems and Verses, which appeared posthumously in 1697; but he is better known through his connection with the Cameronian Regiment.

CLÉLIE, klâ'le'. The heroine of a romance of the same name, by Mademoiselle de Scudéry, originally issued under her brother's (1656).

name

CLÉMANGES, klâ'mäNzh', NICOLAS DE (c.1360-c.1434). A French theologian-one of the ablest Roman Catholic theologians of the Middle Ages. He was educated in Paris, where he studied theology under Pierre d'Ailly. He was chosen rector of the university in 1393, and was esteemed, with his teacher and Gerson, the glory of the institution. He was an ardent advocate of reform in the Church, wrote strongly against the immoral lives of many of the higher clergy, and labored, with great pertinacity, to heal the schism then existing especially by preventing the election of another Antipope in place of the so-called Clement VII. But when Pedro de Luna (q.v.) was elected by the Avignon Cardinals in 1394, taking the name of Benedict XIII., Clémanges became his secretary, thinking that in this position he could render a service to the divided Church. When, in 1407, it came to a breach between Benedict and the French Court. Clémanges, unjustly suspected of being the author of the bull of excommunication launched by Benedict against the King, left Avignon, and went first to his canonry at Langres, and then into the retirement of the Carthusian monasteries at Valprofonds and Fontaine-du-Bosc. Here he pursued his studies, and produced several important works upon the study of the Bible, and upon the corruptions then existing in the Church. In 1415 he exercised a great influence on the Council of Constance, though never present in person, and made a strong plea for Church unity and purity. In 1425 he returned to Paris and to his lectures on rhetoric and theology in the university, and there died, probably in 1434. His collected works, with a life by J. M. Lydius, appeared at Leyden in 1613. The often-quoted De Ruina Ecclesia seu de Corrupto Ecclesiæ statu, while frequently attributed to Clémanges, is demonstrably not his. Consult Müntz, Nicolas de Clémanges, sa vie et ses écrits (Strassburg, 1846).

CLEM'ATIS (Gk. Kλnuaris, klematis, brushwood, from λua, klema, vine-shoot, from λav, klan, to break). A genus of plants of the nat ural order Ranunculaceae, having 4-6 colored sepals, petals small or none, and numerous oneseeded achenes, with long, generally feathery, The species, which number about 150, are

awns.

herbs or shrubs, generally with climbing stems, mostly natives of temperate climates, and much scattered over the world. They possess more or less active properties. The long awns of some species give the plants a beautiful appearance even in winter. The flowers of many species are also beautiful. Clematis vitalba, the common traveler's-joy, is the only native of Great Britain, where it is common in the south, but becomes rarer toward the north, and is scarcely found in Scotland. The stems are capable of being made into baskets. It rapidly covers walls or unsightly objects. The fruit and leaves are acrid and vesicant; the leaves are used as a rubefacient in rheumatism, and those of other species are also employed in the same way. About twenty species are indigenous to North America, and of these Clematis Virginiana, or virgin's-bower, is very widely distributed, making a very showy appearance with its graceful sprays ceeded by fruit with conspicuous feathery tails. Clematis verticillaris, with peduncles bearing large, single, bluish-purple, and drooping flowers, is a rare species, found in rocky woods, from Maine to western New England, and thence to Virginia, Wisconsin, and northwestward. Clematis viorna, popularly called leather-flower, grows in rich soils in the Middle and Southern States. Clematis Pitcheri, a species found along the Mississippi from Illinois southward, has a bellshaped calyx, dull, purplish sepals, and noticeably reticulated leaves. Clematis paniculata, a native of Japan, is one of the most popular climbers for porches, etc. It resembles the virgin's-bower but its flowers are quite fragrant. Among the many species seen in our gardens are Clematis viticella, with its solitary, bell-shaped blossoms, and Clematis florida and Clematis patens, with large blue and purple flowers, natives of Japan. One of the most pleasing, an evergreen, with large white flowers, is Clematis indivisa, a native of New Zealand. Some species, as Clematis flammula, are found in southern Europe and in the mountainous parts of northern Africa. The colors of the blossoms in this genus vary from pure white to yellow, deep purple, and ruby or scarlet. A serious disease affecting

of white flowers. Its fertile flowers are suc

clematis is due to attacks of nematode worms on the roots. Fresh soil, or soil in which the worms are killed by heat or cold, is about the only remedy.

CLÉMENCEAU, klâ'män'sô', GEORGES BENJAMIN EUGENE (1841-). A French politician, born at Mouilleron-en-Pareds, in the Department of Vendée, September 28, 1841. He went abroad for some time, and paid a short visit to the United States. On his return to France in 1869, he finished his medical course and began the practice of his profession. There he acquired great political influence, and after the fall of the Empire was chosen mayor of the Eighteenth Arrondissement (Buttes-Montmartre), and member of the Commission of Education. In 1871 he was elected to the National Assembly, where he voted throughout with the Extreme Left. During the stormy period of the Commune, Clémenceau acted with moderation and good sense. After unavailing efforts to bring about a reconciliation between the Government and the Commune, he resigned his office of mayor, and gave up his seat in the Assembly. In July, 1871, he was elected to the Municipal Council, and rose to be president

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that body; in 1876 he became a member of the Chamber of Deputies, and soon acquired considerable prominence as the leader of the Extreme Left, and the opponent, successively, of Gambetta, Ferry, and the Boulangists. Panama disclosures of 1892 had a damaging effect on Clémenceau's political reputation, and he lost his seat in the Chamber in 1893. In the following years he figured more as a journalist than as a politician, devoting himself mainly to the editing of the radical paper La Justice, founded by him in 1880. He published “L'iniquité," "Contre la justice," and "Vers la réparation" (1899-1900), reprints of articles in his new journal, L'Aurore, on the Dreyfus Affair, championing Dreyfus; and also several works of fiction and one or two social studies. In 1902 he was elected a member of the Senate, and in March, 1906, became minister of the interior and the guiding spirit in the Sarrien Cabinet, and in October became the head of a reconstructed cabinet consisting largely of his personal followers, and including as minister of war General Picquart, the courageous champion of Dreyfus. With a commanding majority in Parliament was thus probably the strongest ruler in the history of the third republic. His policy was vigorously anti-clerical as evidenced in the struggle over the execution of the Separation Law. (See FRANCE.) At the same time he set up against the socialists a programme of extensive reforms aiming to reconcile social welfare with individualism.

Clémenceau

CLEMENS, klem'enz, JEREMIAH (1814-65). An American lawyer and politician. He was born at Huntsville, Ala., and graduated at the University of Alabama in 1833. He was admitted to the bar in 1834; served for several terms in the State Legislature, and distinguished himself in the Mexican War. He was United States Senator from 1849 to 1853; was Presidential Elector in 1856, and during the Civil War accepted office under the Confederacy, though he never favored secession. In 1864 he became a Unionist, and advocated the reëlection of Lincoln. He was the author of several novels, including The Rivals: A Tale of the Times of Aaron Burr and Alexander Hamilton (1859); and Tobias Wilson: A Tale of the Great Rebel. lion (1865).

CLEMENS, SAMUEL LANGHORNE (1835-). An American novelist and humorist, better known as 'Mark Twain'-a name derived from calls used in taking soundings on the Missis sippi, and first employed by Mr. Clemens in newspaper work in 1863. It had previously been taken as a pen-name by Capt. Isaiah Sellers, in the New Orleans Picayune. Mr. Clemens was born at Florida, Mo., November 30, 1835. He received the common-school education of a frontier town, entered a printing-office in 1848, and, be coming an expert compositor, worked at this trade in Saint Louis, New York, and other cities. In 1851 he gave up printing, and became a steamboat pilot on the Mississippi, accumulating a fund of experience that he was later to turn to unique literary account. The Civil War closed this livelihood to him. He joined a volunteer squad of Confederate sympathizers, remaining with the command for a few weeks, but seeing no active service. Then he went to Nevada with his brother, who had been appointed Territorial

Secretary, and at Virginia City became a reporter
and staff writer for the Territorial Enterprise,
revealing here first to the public his powers of
humorously exaggerated description and sarcas-
tic wit. From Nevada he followed the trend to
San Francisco, tried mining in Calaveras County,
made a voyage to the Sandwich Islands, and at-
tracted attention as a humorous lecturer and
writer of localized fiction. The success of his
lectures and a book called by the name of the
first story, The Jumping Frog of Calaveras
County (1867), led to his participating, with
journalistic intent, in an excursion to the Ori-
ent. His letters about his trip, in revised form,
became the well-known Innocents Abroad (1869),
which won him fame on both continents. Then
for two years (1869-71) Clemens edited the Buf-
falo Express. In 1872 he gathered reminiscences
of far-Western life in Roughing It. He moved to
Hartford and became a frequent contributor to
magazines and journals, chiefly in a vein of exag-
gerated humor. His next book was The Gilded
Age (1873), written in collaboration with
Charles Dudley Warner, and afterwards success-
fully dramatized. Then came The Adventures of
Tom Sawyer (1876). A second trip to Europe
furnished material for A Tramp Abroad (1880);
then followed The Stolen White Elephant
(1882); The Prince and the Pauper (1882), an
historical romance; Life on the Mississippi
(1883); and Huckleberry Finn (1885). In 1884
he engaged in the publishing enterprise of Charles
L. Webster and Company, the failure of which,
about a decade later, led him to make a lecture
tour around the world (1895-96), by means of
which he reestablished his fortune and more than
cleared his commercial honor. For ten years
after 1890, Mr. Clemens lived chiefly in Europe.
During this period he published A Connecticut
Yankee at King Arthur's Court (1889); The
American Claimant (1892); Merry Tales
(1892); The £1,000,000 Bank Note (1893); The
Tragedy of Pudd'nhead Wilson (1894); Tom
Sawyer Abroad (1894); Personal Recollections
of Joan of Arc (1896); More Tramps Abroad
(1897); Following the Equator (1897); The
Man that Corrupted Hadleyburg (1900); and
since his return to America A Double-Barreled
Detective Story (1902), Christian Science (1903),
A Dog's Tale (1904), Eve's Diary (1906); The
$30,000 Bequest
(1906). Although popularly
known as a humorist, Mr. Clemens has a thor-
oughly serious side to his character, as has been
shown in later years by his public discussion in
articles or speeches of various questions that
have aroused his sympathy or indignation. But
his best, and perhaps his most permanent work,
has been done as a picaresque novelist in the
Adventures of Tom Sawyer and the Adventures
of Huckleberry Finn. No other writer has so
vividly portrayed the irresponsible American
boy, or so given his readers an adequate im-
pression of the large, homely, spontaneous life
led by native Americans in the great Valley of
the Mississippi.

CLEMENS, kle'měnz, TITUS FLAVIUS.
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA.

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the Apostles, however, no one stood in higher honor among the early Christians; in fact, he is sometimes, as by Clement of Alexandria, called an 'apostle.' In the lists of bishops which began to be produced in the latter half of the second century, Clement stands third from Peter in the Roman succession-the best order being Linus, Anacletus, Clement. The provisional dates assigned to him by the best modern historians are A.D. 88-97; but there is much uncertainty about them. According to Jerome, Clement lived until the third year of Trajan (A.D. 101). His Epistle may be dated with high probability in the year 95 or 96. It was written in the name of the church in Rome to that in Corinth, and contains fraternal advice and counsel in view of disturbances which had arisen in the latter church. It is an important source for the history of Primitive Christianity. It was for a long time honored as 'Scripture,' and read in public worship as late as the fourth century. The other documents which bear Clement's name are not from him. What is known as II. Clement appears to be a second-century homily, of unknown origin. Several spurious epistles are attributed to him, besides the pseudo-Clementine 'Recognitions and Homilies,' on which see CLEMENTINA. Consult: J. B. Lightfoot, The Apostolic Fathers, part i.; Saint Clement of Rome (London, 1890); Knopf, Der erste Clemensbrief (Leipzig, 1899); Gregg, The Epistle of Saint Clement, Bishop of Rome (London, 1899); Krüger, History of Early, Christian Literature (New York, 1897); Harnack, Chronologie der altchristlichen Litteratur (Leipzig, 1897); Brüll, Der erste Brief des Clemens von Rom an die Corinther (Freiburg, 1883).-CLEMENT II., Pope 1046-47. He was a Saxon, Suidger by name, and Bishop of Bamberg. The Emperor Henry III., whose Chancellor he had been, made him Pope on the setting aside of the three rival claimants, Benedict IX., Gregory VI., and Sylvester III.; and he crowned Henry the next day. He was a determined opponent of simony, against which he held a synod a few months before his death.-CLEMENT II., Pope 1187-91. He was a Roman by birth, and Cardinal-Bishop of Palestrina. He settled some of the troubles between the Popes and the Roman people, incited Philip Augustus and Henry II. of England to undertake the Third Crusade, and in 1188 made the Scottish Church directly dependent upon Rome, removing it from the jurisdiction of the archbishops of York. The title of CLEMENT III. was also assumed by Wibert (Guibert), Antipope from 1080 to 1099 (died 1100).-CLEMENT IV., Pope 1265-68. Guy Foulquois le Gros, born at Saint Gilles, on the

Rhône, of a noble Provençal family, at first a soldier, later Archbishop of Narbonne and Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina. He supported Charles of Anjou in his claim to the crown of the Two Sicilies, against Manfred, the natural son of the Emperor Frederick II. He was a man of austere piety, and set his face steadfastly against nepotism. He encouraged and protected Roger Bacon.-CLEMENT V., Pope 1305-14. Bertrand d'Agoust, Archbishop of Bordeaux. He was strongly under the influence of Philip the Fair, at whose bidding he suppressed the Order of Templars (see TEMPLAR, KNIGHTS), and was the first of the Popes to reside at Avignon, which continued to be the seat of the Papacy for nearly

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