are, for the most part, developed in antithetic pairs; as, Great and small, high and low, thick and thin. 2. Stem-substantives, sometimes from known roots; as, Band, from to bind; cake, from to cook; doom, from to deem; and sometimes. from unknown roots; as, Arm, heart, door. SECTION CCCLXXXIX.-IV. TEUTONIC REDUPLICATE FORMS. Reduplicate forms; as, Chit-chat, from chat; sing-song, from sony; see-saw, from to saw. 1. Bibble-babble, idle talk, senseless prattle, from babble; 2. Chitchat, idle or familiar talk, from chat; 3. Ding-dong, the repetition of a stroke, the sound of a bell, from ding; 4. Dingle-dangle, a swinging or oscillating motion, from dangle; 5. Fiddle-faddle, trifling, from fuddle; 6. Flim-flam, a freak, a trick, from flam; 7. Gew-gaw, a bauble (comp. Fr. joujou, a plaything); 8. Gibble-gabble, noisy conversation, from gabble; 9. Griffe-gaffe (comp. Anglo-Sax. gifan, to give); 10. Knick-knack, a toy, from knack; 11. Mish-mash, a medley, a heap of things thrown together, from mash; 12. Pit-a-pat, or apitpat, in a flutter, from pat; 13. Prittle-prattle, idle talk, from prattle; 14. Riff-raff, sweepings, refuse, from raff; 15. See-saw, a vibratory motion, from to saw; 16. Shilly-shally, irresolution, probably from shall I? 17. Sing-song, bad singing, monotony, from song; 18. Skimbleskamble, wandering, disorderly, from scamble; 19. Slip-slop, bad liquor, from slop; 20. Snip-snap, tart dialogue with quick replies, from snap, to answer quickly; 21. Tick-tack, the noise of a blacksmith's shop, also a game at tables, from tick; 22. Tittle-tattle, empty babble, from tattle; 23. Twittle-twattle, idle talk, from twattle; 24. Whim-wham, a freak, fancy, from whim; 25. Zigzag, with short turns or angles. A few others might be added; as, click-clack, a plaything with which a clacking is made; crincum-crancum, winding round, as a crooked path; crick-crack, the noise of a thing cracking; dilly-dally, to trifle away time; mingle-mangle, a medley; pintlepantle, or pintledy-pantledy, in a flutter; shim-sham, foolery. Remarks on the preceding Words. I. These words are proper reduplicate forms. They are not compounded of two distinct words, but they are formed by iterating or repeating the same word. It is an error to suppose that each part of the composition has a distinct significancy. Yet S. Skinner would connect fiddle-faddle with Fr. fade or Lat. fatuus, foolish, as if the compound meant fiddle-foolish; C. Richardson would connect chitchat with chit, a child, as if the compound meant childish-chat; and another distinguished philologist would connect see-saw with sea, as if the compound meant the sawing of the sea. II. The change of vowel evidently depends on a regular euphonic law. The short vowel in the first part is a preparation for the fuller sound in the second. This renders the whole word melodious and expressive. It is improper to call this change of vowel a corruption, or to seek in it for any peculiar significancy. Yet Dr. Johnson calls chit-chat a corruption of chat-chat; J. Thomson calls chit a diminutive of chat; and Stoddart makes pit a diminutive of pat. III. These words illustrate an important formative principle in language. They are not formed by internal inflection, that is, by a change of vowel within the root itself, as band or bond from bind; nor by derivation, as bondage from bond; nor by composition of two words, as bondman from bond and man; but by a peculiar process. This principle in the formation of language has its natural place after internal inflection, and before derivation. IV. This mode of forming words, consisting in a mechanical repetition of the same sound, is naturally adapted to express (1.) the continuous flow of conversation; as, Bibble-babble, chit-chat, gibble-gabble, prittle-prattle, snip-snap, tittle-tattle, twittle-twattle; (2.) other constant and repeated sounds; as, Click-clack, crick-crack, ding-dong, sing-song, tick-tack; (3.) certain oscillatory motions; as, Crincumcrancum, dingle-dangle, pintle-pantle, pit-a-pat, see-saw, zig-zag; (4.) certain mental fluctuations or oscillations; as, Dilly-dally, fiddlefaddle, flim-flam, gew-gaw, giffe-gaffe, knick-knack, shilly-shally, shimsham, whim-wham; and (5.) some miscellaneous things involving the idea of repetition; as, Mish-mash, mingle-mangle, riff-raff, skimbleskamble, slip-slop. V. These are favourite formations with most of the Gothic nations, particularly with the common people. Thus we have: Germ. fickfacken, to play tricks; klingklang, a jingle; mischmasch; singsang; schnickschnack, idle talk; tick-tack, in a flutter; wirrwarr, confusion; wischwasch, idle talk; zickzack. Low Sax. fickfacken; hinkhanken, to hobble about; miskmask; ticktacken, to touch gently and often; tiesketauske; titeltateln; wibbelwabbeln; wirrwarr, confusion; zieskezaaske. Dan. miskmask; sniksnak; trictrac, a game at tables. Scott. click-clack, uninterrupted loquacity (comp. Eng. clack, to let the tongue run); clish-clash, idle talk, from clash, idem; clitter-clatter, idle talk, from clatter, idem; fiery-fary, bustle, confusion, from fiery or fary, idem; fike-facks, humours, whims, from fike, to be inconstant; fix-fax, hurry, perhaps from the same; lig-lag, a confused noise of tongues, perhaps a softening of click-clack; mixtie-maxtie, or mixiemaxie, in a state of confusion; niff-naffs, trifles; nignayes, or nignyes, whims, trifles; whiltie-whaltie, in a state of palpitation. Also, Fr. criccrac, noise of a thing cracking; micmac, intrigues; trictrac, a game at tables; zigzag. VI. Besides these examples which have a play of vowels, producing an alliteration, we have another class which have a play of consonants, producing a sort of rhyme; as, Handy-dandy, a play in which children change hands and places; harum-scarum, or harum-starum, flighty; higgledy-piggledy, confusedly; hoddy-doddy, a foolish fellow; hoity-toity, an interjection of surprise; hugger-mugger, secretly; humdrum, a stupid fellow; hurly-burly, confusion; hurdy-gurdy, a kind of stringed instrument; hurry-skurry, confusedly; namby-pamby, having little affected prettinesses; pell-mell, confusedly; pick-nick, a club in which each one contributes to the entertainment; slang-whunger, a noisy talker of slang (according to Dr. Pickering, a recent Americanism); topsy-turvy, with the bottom upward. It is remarkable how large a proportion of these words begin with h. VII. So great has been the attachment to these two formations, that they have been sometimes adopted, much to the disfigurement of the original word; as, Criss-cross for Christ's cross; helter-skelter for the Latin phrase hilariter et celeriter; hocus-pocus for the Latin sentence hoc est corpus meum; hodge-podge, or hotch-potch, for the French compound hoche-pot; tag-rag for tag and rag; whipper-snapper for whip-snapper. SECTION CCCXC.-V. TEUTONIC PRIMARY DERIVATIVES. Primary derivatives are those which are derived immediately from the root or stem. They include, 1. Derivative verbs in er, le, and en; as, Chatter, a frequentative from to chat; crackle, a diminutive from to crack; harden, a factitive from hard. 2. Derivative adjectives: (a) in en, from nouns, and forming hylonymic adjectives, or adjectives expressing the material of which anything is made: as, golden, earthen; wooden, ashen; oaten, wheaten; waxen, woollen. (b) in ern, from nouns, and denoting the point of the compass; as, northern, southern, eastern, western. (c) in ey, the same as y; as, clayey, wheyey. (d) in ish, forming diminutives; as, whitish, thievish; also gentile adjectives; as, English, Danish; also more obscured; as, French, Welsh, Dutch. Opposed to ly in womanish, childish. (e) in ed, the termination of participles; as, winged. (f) in ful; as, fearful. (g) in less, denoting loose, free; as, fearless, thankless. (h) in some; as, toilsome, tiresome, wholesome. (i) in ly, originally an adverbial termination; as goodly, manly. (j) in ward; as, backward, forward. (k) in y, from abstract nouns; as, angry, worthy, lengthy, mighty, frosty; from concrete nouns; as, woody, bushy, muddy, sunny; or from material nouns; as, airy, fiery, sandy, earthy, watery, bloody, hairy, dusty; also any. 3. Derivative adverbs : (a) in ly (= like) forming adverbs expressing the manner of an action, attached to abstract substantives and to adjectives; as, He gives freely; he speaks wrongly. This is the prevalent use of this suffix in English. -- NOTE. This suffix is attached also to concrete substantives, and thus forms adjectives; but such adjectives are used, for the most part, attributively, seldom predicatively; as, a daily publication; manly conduct. (b) in s, forming a sort of adverbial genitive; as, needs, un awares. 4. Derivative concrete substantives : (a) in er, denoting the personal agent, or active male subject, as opposed to the female; as, widower, gander, murderer; or the personal subject generally; as lover, hater; also animals; as, ambler, hunter; or the instrumental subject; as, boiler, cleaver; also gunner; also gentile nouns; as, Hamburger, burgher. (b) in ard; as, drunkard, dullard. (c) in ine; as, margravine. (d) in kin; as, lambkin, firkin. (e) in ling; as, fondling, darting, stripling, suckling, seedling, changeling, duckling. (f) in ock; as, hillock. 5. Derivative abstract substantives in ing, th, dom, ness, head, ric, ship, cry. hood, (a) The suffix ing (Anglo-Saxon ung, German ung), annexed to verbs, denotes the action expressed by the verb; as, "In preaching Christ," "in the preaching of Christ;" but has also taken the place of the present active participle; as, "A man fearing "Aman God." (b) The suffix th (Dutch te), annexed to adjectives, denotes the quality; as breadth, depth; drought, height. (c) The suffix dom (Anglo-Saxon dom, German thum), annexed to adjectives or attributives, denotes (1.) the quality; as, wisdom; (2.) an act; as cuckoldom; (3.) a state; as, freedom; (4.) a condition; as, birthdom; (5.) appurtenances or possession; as, princedom; and (6.) the collective concrete; as, Christendom. (d) The suffix ness (Anglo-Saxon nes, nis, nys, German miss), annexed to adjectives, denotes the abstract quality; as, goodness, hardness; and occasionally something possessing the quality; as, fastness. (e) The suffix hood or head (Anglo-Saxon had, German heit, keit), annexed to adjectives and attributives, denotes (1.) the nature or essence; as, godhead; (2.) the quality; as, hardihood; (3.) the state; as, boyhood; (4.) the condition; as, knighthood; (5.) something possessing the quality; as, falsehood; (6.) the collective concrete; as, sisterhood; and (7.) the means; as, hood. liveli (f) The suffix ric, annexed to attributives, denotes the state or condition; as, bishopric. (9) The suffix ship or scape (Anglo-Saxon sceaft, scype, scipe, German schaft), annexed to attributives, denotes (1.) the state; as, friendship; (2) an act; as, courtship; (3.) the condition; as, wardship; (4.) appurtenances or possession; as, lordship; and (5.) the effect; as, workmanship. (h) The suffix ery denotes the employment; as, brewery, grocery. VI. TEUTONIC SECONDARY DERIVATIVES. Secondary derivatives are derivatives from other derivatives; as, fearfully, fearfulness, fearlessly, fearlessness, tiredness, learnedly, waywardness, westwardly, tiresomeness. SECTION CCCXCI.-VII. TEUTONIC WORDS WITH PREFIXES. DERIVATION OF WORDS, or the formation of words by internal change of vowel and by suffixes, gives us different forms of ideas; as, Drink (noun), drinker, drinking (participle), drinking (noun), drench, all of which are forms or modifications of the radical idea to drink. Composition, or the combination of two words, each expressing a distinct idea, so as to form one word expressing one idea, is a development of the species from the genus, and gives us different species of ideas; as, School-house, state-house, alms-house, all species under the general term house. This process is especially adapted to form substantives. The formation of words by prefixes, that is, by particles denoting, not distinct ideas, but merely relations, is also a development of the species from the genus, and gives us different species of ideas; as, Forego, outgo, overgo, undergo, all species under the general term to go; and in words derived from the Latin, Attend, contend, intend, pretend, subtend, all species under the general term to tend. But this process is especially adapted to form verbs and verbal derivatives. The prefix is usually a particle denoting motion, or, rather, the direction of motion. The verb also expresses motion, or is so conceived by the mind. Hence the prefix renders the meaning of the verb more specific by giving the direction of the motion. The formation of words by prefixes is an ancient process in language. It was extensively employed in Gothic and Anglo-Saxon, the ancient languages whence the Teutonic portion of our own tongue is derived. In the English language it has ceased to be an active living principle. Compound verbs of Teutonic origin, in the ordinary cases where the prefix retains its primary local signification, have been disused, and the prefix employed separately after the verb. Thus we now have to give in, to give over, to give out, to give up, as species under the general term to give. The few cases in which such compound words have been retained in English are the following:-1. Where the force of the prefix is entirely lost; as, Arise, awake. 2. Where the meaning of the prefix is not obvious; as, Answer, begin, forsake, withstand, upbraid. 3. Where the prefix has lost its local meaning, and acquired a metaphorical one; as, Outbid, uphold, overdo, underbid, forego, bemoan, begird, becharm, forgive, forswear. 4. Where the prefix denotes time; as, Outlive, overlive, foresee. 5. Where the prefix has an unusual physical meaning; as, Overtake, overturn, withstand. 6. Where the |