Other Adverbs of Place are, Yonder, above, below, about, around, somewhere, anywhere, elsewhere, everywhere, nowhere, wherever, within, without, whereabout, hereabout, thereabout; In, up, down, back, forth, inward, upward, downward, backward, forward; Away, out.

III. Adverbs of NUMBER are those which answer to the question How often? as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. Besides these, there are, Firstly, secondly, thirdly, fourthly, &c.

IV. Adverbs of DEGREE are those which answer to the question. How much? as, Much, little, too, very, right, infinitely, scarcely, hardly, merely, far, besides, chiefly, only, mostly, quite, dear, stark, partly, almost, altogether, all, clear, enough, so, as, even, how, however, howsoever, ever so, something, nothing, anything, &c.

V. Adverbs of MANNER are those which answer to the question How? (a) Adverbs of Quality; as Well, ill, fain, lief, wisely, foolishly. (5) Of Affirmation; as, Ay, yes, yea, truly, verily, indeed, surely, certainly, doubtless, certes, forsooth, amen. (7) Of Negation; as, Ñay, NOT, NO, nowise. (8) Of Doubt; as, Perhaps, possibly, perchance, peradventure. The following may also be considered as Adverbs of Manner, though some of them may be included in another class, namely, Thus, how, somehow, however, howsoever, like, else, so, otherwise, across, together, apart, asunder, namely, aloud.

SECTION CCCLXX.-PRIMITIVE ADVERBS OF PLACE.

The following Adverbs of Place are worthy of attention, both on account of their decided character as primitive or radical words, and on account of the peculiar analogous formations which are made from them.

2.

I. IN. 1. In, the most simple form, employed without a complement as an adverb, and with a complement as a preposition. Within, the emphatic form, compounded of the particles with and in, employed both as an adverb, and as a preposition. 3. Inner, the comparative form, but employed as an adjective of the positive degree; also innermore (obsolete), with double sign of the comparative. 4. Innermost, the full superlative form; also inmost, the shorter superlative form; both employed as adjectives. 5. Inward, toward the interior, employed as an adjective; and inwards, with the form of the genitive, employed as an adverb.

II. OUT. 1. Out, the most simple form, employed as an adverb; also out, more commonly out of, used as a preposition. 2. Without, the emphatic form, compounded of the particles with and out, employed both as an adverb and as a preposition. 3. Utter and outer, two comparative forms, employed as adjectives of the positive degree, but in different acceptations; utter in a more metaphorical, and outer in a more physical sense. 4. Uttermost and outermost, full superlative forms of the adjective in different acceptations; also outmost and utmost, shorter superlative forms; also outest, obsolete. 5. Outward, employed as an adjective; and outwards, employed as an adverb.

III. UP. 1. Up, the most simple form, employed as an adverb and as a preposition. 2. Above (Anglo-Saxon abufan), the emphatic form, compounded of the particles a, be by, and ufan up, employed both as an adverb and as a preposition. 3. Over and upper, two comparative forms; the former employed as an adverb or preposition, and the latter as an adjective of the comparative degree. 4. Overmost and uppermost, full superlative forms; also upmost, shorter superlative form, obsolete; also upperest, obsolete; all used as adjectives. 5. Upward, adjective, and upwards, adverb.

IV. NEATH. 1. Neath (compare Anglo-Saxon neothan), obsolete, and its place supplied by down. 2. Beneath and below, compound emphatic forms, employed both as adverbs and as prepositions. 3. Nether and lower, adjectives of the comparative degree; also nethermore, obsolete, with double sign of the comparative. 4. Nethermost and lowermost, full superlative forms; also lowmost, obsolete, and lowest, shorter superlative forms; also netherest, obsolete; all used as adjectives. 5. Downward, adjective, and downwards, adverb.

V. FORE. 1. Fore and for, the most simple forms; fore employed as an adverb, and for as a preposition. 2. Before, the compound emphatic form, employed both as an adverb and as a preposition. 3. Former, the comparative form, employed as an adjective. 4. Foremost and first, superlative forms. 5. Forward, adjective; forwards,

adverb.

VI. HIND. 1. The place of the adverb is supplied by back or behind; that of the preposition by behind. 2. Behind, the emphatic form, employed both as an adverb and as a preposition. 3. Hinder, the comparative form, employed as an adjective. 4. Hindermost, the full superlative form, obsolete; also hindmost, the shorter superlative form; also hinderest, obsolete. 5. Backward, adjective, and backwards, adverb.

VII. MID. 1. The place of the adverb and preposition is supplied by amidst. 2. Amidst, the compound and emphatic form, employed both as an adjective and as an adverb. 3. Wanting. 4. Middlemost, the superlative form. 5. Midward, obsolete. The other primitive adverbs of place are by, of, and off, on, to, and too, with.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER VII.

1. Give the two definitions of the adverb, and origin of the term.

2. To what class of words does the adverb belong, and what are the several members of this class?

3. What is the origin of adverbs? Give an instance of an adverb derived from an adjective; and of one derived from a participle; and of one derived from a pronoun; and of one derived from a numeral; of one derived from a verb, and of one derived from a substantive.

4. What is said of adverbs ending in ly, and also of adverbs with the prefix a? 5. Mention some of the adverbial pronouns.

6. When you use. the interrogatives who, which, &c., what part of speech do you inquire about? and when you use the interrogatives when, whence, &c., what part of speech do you inquire about? What inference do you draw in respect to the names given to these interrogatives?

7. Give some examples of adverbs formed from concrete substantives, and also of adverbs formed from cases.

8. Mention the three conclusions drawn from the examination of adverbs having the same form as adjectives.

9. Give some instances of adverbial phrases.

10. Give the classification of adverbs.

11. What question do adverbs of time answer?

12. What question do adverbs of place answer? What question do adverbs of number answer? What question do adverbs of manner answer? 13. Mention the primitive adverbs of place.

CHAPTER VIII.

SECTION CCCLXXI.-PREPOSITIONS.

At

A PREPOSITION is a word which cannot by itself form the constituent part of a simple proposition, but which can enter into a complex proposition in combination with a noun or pronoun, to express some relation; as, Socrates, the son of Sophroniscus, was born at Alopece. Of, in this case, not only connects the word son with the word Sophroniscus, but it also shows the relation between them. connects Alopece with the verb was born, and shows the relation between them. See Section CCXL. Or, a Preposition is a word which connects an object with a verb or an adjective; as, "He went through London" "he belongs to no party;" "he is wise for himself."

1. The preposition, Latin præpositio, was so called because it was placed before the substantive to which it refers. Præpositio est pars orationis invariabilis, quæ præponitur aliis dictionibus. The name is faulty, inasmuch as it is founded on merely its position in the sentence, and not on its nature and office. The preposition was not uniformly placed before the noun to which it related. Tenus always comes after the noun which it governs, and cum occupies the same position in the expressions mecum, tecum, nobiscum, vobiscum. In English it always precedes the noun.

2. It was by some of the Greek grammarians classed with conjunctions, under the common term oúvdeopos, or the connective, inas34 [ENG. LANG. 16.]

much as the preposition connects words and the conjunction sentences. From its ordinary position, some of the Stoics called it σύνδεσμος προθετίκος.

3. In showing the relations of words to each other, the preposition performs the same office in modern languages which case-endings did in the ancient languages. The relations which they express are various, such as relations of locality, of time, of causality. original relation expressed by prepositions appears to have been that of locality. Prepositions are relational words or form-words.

SECTION CCCLXXII.-A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS.

The

1. At, after (the comparative of aft), by, down, fur, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, till, to, through, under, up, with. These have been called simple prepositions.

2. Aboard, above, about, across, against, long, amid, amidst, among, amongst, around, athwart. These are formed by prefixing a.

3. Before, behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. These are formed by prefixing be.

4. Into, out of, throughout, toward, towards, upon, until, unto, underneath, within, without. These are formed by compounding two prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb.

5. Bating, barring, concurring, during, excepting, notwithstanding, regarding, respecting, touching. These were originally participles, and they can be treated as participles.

6. Save and except can be treated as verbs in the imperative mode. Nigh, near, next, opposite, can be viewed as prepositions in construction, or as adjectives, the preposition to being understood. Along may be considered as a preposition in certain combinations; as, "He went along the river." But, when equivalent to except, has the force of a preposition.

7. There are also certain Prepositional Phrases; as, According to, in respect of; as, On account of the love propter amorem.

SECTION CCCLXXIII.-ORIGIN OF CERTAIN PREPOSITIONS.

ATHWART is from a and thwart, an adjective or a verb. Moved "contrary with thwart obliquities."-MILTON. "Swift as a shooting star in autumn thwarts the night."-Idem. The meaning of the word, here' used as an adjective or verb, is seen in the preposition; as, "Moving athwart the sky." ACROSS, in formation and meaning, is analogical with athwart. AGAINST is from Anglo-Saxon gean, ongeon. It comes from the verb gan, to go. AMONG is from AngloSaxon onmang, verb gemengan, to mingle. ABOUT, Anglo-Saxon abutan. It seems to be related to the French word bout, the butt or limit of a thing.

=

BETWEEN by twain, by twice. Sir PHILIP SIDNEY uses betweene as an adjective: "His authoritie having been abused by those great lords, who, in those betweene times of reigning, had brought in the

worst kind of oligarchie." In the Old English we find the adverb atwayne: "With his axe he smote it atwayne." BEYOND seems to be of the same origin as the preposition against, being from the verb gan, to go. It is equivalent to "that place being passed." BENEATH by the nether, that is, lower part. Br, Anglo-Saxon be or big, Gothic bi, Swedish be, Danish by. The word, in composition, is often written be; as, Because, besiege.

BEFORE, BEHIND, are of the same nature, in this respect, that fore and hind are to the nouns, in composition with be. They are still used in an adjectival sense in foreman, hind wheel, &c. Afore and tofore were formerly used instead of before, and they are still used in the expressions aforesaid, heretofore.

FOR and FORE appear to have been originally the same word. Our common words "wherefore" and "therefore" are equivalent to "for which" and "for this;" and the latter is often written forthy in ancient authors, as the former is written for why by some of modern date :

"And forthy, if it happe in any wise

That here be any cover in this place."-CHAUCER's Troilus.

Solyman had three hundred field-pieces, that a camel might well carry one of them, being taken from the carriage: for why, Solyman, purposing to draw the emperor into battle, had brought no greater pieces of battery with him."-KNOLLE's History of Turkey. Forsaid was used as foresaid, forlok for forelook. For still has a meaning kindred to fore or before. For is also used as a conjunction; as, "That ye may be the children of your Father who is in heaven; for he maketh his sun to rise on the evil and on the good." In such sentences for has the sense of because. It may be said, in general, that for indicates the cause or motive of any action or cir

cumstance.

IN, Latin in, Greek iv, Gothic in, Anglo-Saxon in, French en, Spanish en, Italian in, German ein, Danish ind, Sanscrit antu. This relates to place and time, and can be coupled, in the way of opposition, to out. This last word is in Anglo-Saxon ut. Various com pounds are formed from these; as, Within, without, or inwith, outwith, as written by some ancient writers. The words withouten and forouten were also formerly used.

Adown, afore, aneath, astride, despite, outside, per, &c., are sometimes used as prepositions.

SECTION CCCLXXIV.-THE NATURE AND OFFICE OF PREPOSITIONS.

1. "The preposition is a word placed before a noun. This is merely an external definition, and does not indicate its internal

nature.

2. Prepositions express neither essences (like substantives) nor activities (like verbs and adjectives), but only their relations. They