"We are not to stay altogether, but to come to him where he stands by ones, by two's and by threes."-SHAKESPEARE.

Numerals are usually classed with adjectives, and called numeral adjectives. Like pronouns, they can be divided, according to their signification and form, into substantive, adjective, and adverbial numerals; as, a hundred; ten men; tenthly.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER III.

1 1. Give the two definitions of an adjective, and the derivation of the term.

2. What does it denote, and why is it called a noun adjective?

3. Mention the several classes of adjectives.

4. What is a proper adjective, and what is a common adjective?

5. What is a numeral adjective, and what is a pronominal adjective?

6. What is a participial adjective, and what a compound adjective?

7. Mention other classifications, with examples.

8. How many degrees of comparison have adjectives that denote variable quantities, and what are they?

9. In terminational comparison, how is the positive expressed? how is the comparative expressed? how is the superlative expressed?

10. What is said of compound comparison? and of diminution of quality? and of the termination ish? and of the number of varieties of quality?

11. Give an instance of irregular comparison, in which different words are employed. 12. Give instances of irregular terminations in comparison.

13. Give instances of defective comparison.

14. What is said of comparison by intensive words?

15. What is said of adjectives not admitting comparison ?

NUMERALS.

16. What do numerals express? what kind of words are they? and what is said of their importance?

17. Which are the cardinal numerals? what do they express? and what question do

they answer?

18. Which are the ordinal numerals? what do they denote? and what question do

they answer?

19. Which are the multiplicative numerals? what do they denote? and what question do they answer?

20. Which are the partitive numerals, and the indefinite numerals?

21. Which are the indefinite quantitatives, and the compound numerals ?

22. What is said of plural forms?

CHAPTER IV.

THE ARTICLE.

SECTION CCLXXXIII.

THE ARTICLE is a part of speech serving to reduce a noun substantive from a general to a particular signification. It is a question whether the words AN and THE should be regarded as a distinct part of speech, called the article, or should be classed with adjectives. An is very closely related in origin and power to the word one, a numeral adjective. The, both in its original and its present power, is closely related to the word that, a pronominal adjective. It is convenient to class them as a distinct part of speech.

SECTION CCLXXXIV.-RELATION OF THE ARTICLES TO THE PROPOSITION.

Still, though they agree severally with one and that, they also differ from them. They cannot, either of them, like one and that, form the predicate of a proposition. Nor can either of them stand by itself as the subject of a proposition. The can enter into a proposition only as the sign of definiteness; as, "The man is mortal." An or a can enter into a proposition only as a sign of indefiniteness; as, "A man is mortal." The article can be only a secondary part of speech.

SECTION CCLXXXV.-THE ARTICLE

"AN" 66
OR

1. The article AN is the Anglo-Saxon án, the Scotch ane, the Latin unus, and the numeral one. But, though it is the same in derivation as the numeral one, it differs from it in meaning. A man is more indefinite than one man. The word an cannot be used by itself; the word one can. Thus we can say, "He sold one," but not

"He sold a."

2. In the Anglo-Saxon, an was used before consonantal sounds as well as vowel sounds. In the English language then is omitted before consonantal sounds and retained before vowel sounds; as, a man, an eagle, a heart, an hour, a union, a oneness. The last two words commence with consonantal sounds, the first with that of y, and the second with that of w, and therefore a is used instead of an. In the word hour the h is silent, and accordingly the n

is retained.

3. The words an and a are identical, the change from an to a before a consonantal sound having been made by a euphonic process. It is used when we speak of some single object without defining it. For this reason, in comparison with the, it is called the Indefinite Article. It is definite only with respect to number. It can occur only when conjoined with other words; as, "A man," "a woman." Like the adjective, it is the same for all genders and cases.

1. The word THE is called the Definite Article, because it specifies or defines the substantive with which it is conjoined; as, "The man," "The woman." By these expressions some particular man or woman is signified. It is the same for all genders, and cases, and numbers.

2. The definite article the has arisen out of the demonstrative pronoun pat, or, at least, out of a common root; just as an and a have arisen out of the numeral one. In the Anglo-Saxon there was a form, pe, undeclined, and common to all the cases of all the numbers. As an or a is less definite than one, so is the less definite than that. Were we for the to substitute that, and to say "That man with that long beard," the phrase would more particularly imply real presence, and, indirectly, a sort of contrast with "This man with this long beard." An and one, the and that, express different degrees of defi

niteness.

An might with propriety be called the Numeral article, and the the Demonstrative.

SECTION CCLXXXVII.-COMPARATIVE ETYMOLOGY.

In Greek there is no indefinite, in Latin there is neither an indefinite nor a definite article. In the former language they say ävηp is a certain man." In the Latin, the words filius regis mean equally the son of the king, a son of a king, a son of the king, or the son of a king. In Moso-Gothic and in Old Norse there is an equal absence of the indefinite article.

The origin of articles seems to be uniform. The German ein, the Danish en, stand to one in the same relation in which an does. The French un, Italian and Spanish uno, are similarly related to unus one. And as in English the, in German der, in Danish den, come from the demonstrative pronouns, so in the Romanic languages are the French le, the Italian il and lo, and the Spanish el, derived from the Latin demonstrative ille.

In no language, in its oldest stage, is there ever a word giving, in its primary sense, the ideas of a and the. As tongues become modern, some word with a similar sense is used to express them. In the course of time a change of form takes place corresponding to the change of meaning, e.g., one becomes an, and afterward a. Then it is that articles become looked upon as separate parts of speech. No invalidation of this statement is drawn from the Greek language. Although the etymology gives us o, ǹ, ró, ho, he, to, as the definite article, the syntax informs us that in the oldest stage of the language o (ho) the had the power of ovros (howtos) this. =

There is a the which originated from the Anglo-Saxon by, that, and is different from the the which originated from the Anglo-Saxon pe. The latter is the common article. The former is the the in expressions like all the more, all the better better by all that, and the Latin phrases eo majus, eo melius.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER IV.

1. What is an article?

2. What question has been raised in respect to an and the?

3. To what words are they closely related in origin and power?

4. State the relation of the articles to the proposition.

5. With what words is the article an identical?

more by all that,

6. In what cases is an used in the English language, and in what cases is a used? 7. What is an or a called, and why is it so called?

8. In what respect is this article definite?

9. Why is the called the definite article?

10. From what is the definite article the derived?

11. Mention some languages which are destitute of one or both articles. 12. What is said of the Latin in this connection?

13. What is said of another the?

CHAPTER V.

SECTION CCLXXXVIII.-THE PRONOUN.

A PRONOUN is a word which can be used instead of a noun, either as the subject or the predicate of a proposition; as, "The man is happy; he is benevolent." Here he is used instead of man as the subject of the proposition. "I am he." Here he is used as the predicate of the proposition.

Or, a pronoun is a word used instead of a noun; as, "I went to London; "Thou hast done a good action;" "He will return.” The term pronoun is derived from the Latin word pronomen, which signifies for a noun. Pronouns have been called substitutes, inas

much as some of them stand not only for nouns, but also for adjec tives, for a sentence or part of a sentence, or a series of propositions. Pronouns are relational words, or form-words, according to Becker's classification. They do not, like substantives, express the idea of an object, but only the relation of an object to the speaker, since they show whether the object is the speaker himself (the first person), or the person or thing addressed (the second person), or the person or thing spoken of (the third person); e. g., I (the teacher) give to you (the scholar) it (the book).

SECTION CCLXXXIX.-CLASSIFICATION.

I. A PERSONAL PRONOUN is a pronoun whose form shows of what person it is without reference to the construction in which it is used. The personal pronouns are I, of the first person; thou, of the second person; he, she, and it, of the third person. It should be remembered that nouns are naturally of the third person.

II. A DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which eminently points out the objects to which it relates.

The demonstrative pronouns are this and that, with their plurals, these and those, and perhaps such and same.

III. A RELATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which stands for some preceding word or phrase called the antecedent, and performs the office of a conjunction in connecting sentences.

The relative pronouns are who, which, that, and what.

IV. An INTERROGATIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun used in asking questions.

The interrogative pronouns are who, which, and what.

V. An ADJECTIVE PRONOUN is a pronoun which partakes of the nature of the adjective. See Section CCLXVI.

VI. An ADVERBIAL PRONOUN is a pronoun which partakes of the nature of an adverb. See Section CCCLXIII.

SECTION COXC.-THE EXTENT OF PRONOUNS.

The extent of this part of speech in different languages has been variously defined. Thus, unus, totus, solus were regarded as pronouns by the ancient Latin grammarians, while the corresponding words in Greek, siç, nãç, öλos, and póvos, are considered merely as adjectives. Same, in English, is considered as an adjective, while idem, in Latin, is ranked among pronouns. In Sanscrit grammar, the number of pronouns is especially great, embracing such words as nemas, half; alpas, a little; êkas, one; dakshinas, on the right or southern; awaras, behind, &c. That these words have a plausible claim to be regarded as pronouns might easily be shown; and grammarians, in receiving them, have probably been influenced by the irregularity of inflection which naturally attaches to the pronoun.

SECTION CCXCI.-THE VALUE OF PRONOUNS.

Pronouns act a very important part in etymology, and have a

great influence upon the grammatical form of other parts of speech. The pronominal roots enter into the personal inflections of verbs, and into the cases of nouns, and give rise to many adverbs, and to a large proportion of the conjunctions.

It has been said that pronouns are employed to prevent the tiresome repetition of nouns. But they do something more. For, as there is hardly any name peculiar to one individual, the employment of a name belonging to more persons than one would not so clearly specify the object as the appropriate pronoun; nor would it have that simplicity and energy which accompany the pronoun. If, instead of saying "I am the God," Moses had said, "The Lord is the God," or, instead of saying, "Thou art the man," Nathan had said, “David is the man," the energy of the expression would have been destroyed. They are strange and mighty words these two little pronouns I and thou; the mightiest, perhaps, in the whole compass of language. The word pronoun is not quite strictly appropriate to them; for, as the great master of the philosophy of language, William Humboldt, observes, "They are not the mere substitutes of the names of the persons for whom they stand, but involve the personality of the speaker and of the person spoken to, and the relation between them." I is the word which man has in common with God, the eternal, self-existing I AM. Thou is the word with which God and his conscience speak to man, the word with which man speaks and communes with God and his neighbour. All other words without these two would belong to things. I and thou are inseparable from personality, and bestow personality on whatsoever they are applied They are the two primary elements and conditions of all speech, which implies a speaker and a person spoken to; and they are indispensable complements each of the other, so that neither idea could have been called forth in man without the help of its mate.

to.

SECTION CCXCII.-PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

A PERSONAL PRONOUN is a pronoun whose form shows of what person it is, without reference to the construction in which it is used. There are five pronouns called PERSONAL, namely, I, THOU, HE, SHE, IT. They are so called because they denote only the relation of personality. They are substitutes for nouns, and are sometimes called substantive pronouns.

The reasons for including the pronoun it with the personal pronouns are historical rather than logical. Strictly, it is applied to things rather than to persons. The reasons for not including the pronoun who, which denotes persons, in this class, are found in its distinctive office of connecting sentences, in which it agrees with the relative pronouns, and is classed with them.

Personal pronouns admit of person, number, gender, and case. Variety of form to distinguish the sex is confined to the third person. He is masculine; she is feminine; it is neuter. Pronouns of the first and second person are either masculine or feminine, according to the sex of the speaker or of the person addressed.