tinctions, as found in the circumstances of fertile intermixture of races in man, but not among the monkey tribes; in the existence of man in all climates, while the monkeys are chiefly confined to the tropics; in the fact that the latter only, not the former, is provided with a natural covering of hair; in the fact that the former only provides himself with clothing and a dwelling; in the fact that man alone stores up knowledge for his own use and that of all generations; and in the fact that no race of men has ever been found which had not the capacity of framing a language, while the monkeys are, in this respect, hardly on a level with the parrot and the magpie. Moreover, he thinks that the anthropoid apes most like man in structure, are least like him in intelligence; the gorilla, at the head of the list, being only known as ferocious and untamable; while the orang-outang, in form nearest man, is described as a slow, sluggish, dull, and melancholy animal. Again there are in the New World monkeys with four supernumerary teeth; and on the same continent, there are no anthropoid apes at all. Finally, the author concludes, the monkey tribes have an outward or structural resemblance to man, beyond that of all other animals; but why this is so he considers a mystery beyond our understanding. Mr. W. Winwood Reade, in a paper before the Anthrop. Society, June 22d, 1863, speaking of the anthropoid apes of Africa, said: The habits of the gorilla do not differ from those of the chimpanzee; though the natives regard the latter as the more intelligent. He would mention a fact not previously made public, namely, that both these apes build nests as lying-in hospitals for their females. These are simply rude layers of sticks and branches.

Finally, it may be regarded as generally admitted, and even among those who adopt the theory of development in accordance with which man might appear to have had his origin from lower orders of creatures, that there are, and especially in the mental constitution of man, unquestionable and great distinctions between him and the most highly developed of those lower creatures. These most radical distinctions are to be found in his intellectual powers, and in his æsthetical, social, moral, and religious natures. And to say that man has, at some indefinite period of past time, emerged even from the level of the higher apes, would not still be to deny that now the actual distinctions between the two classes of beings are practically immeasurable and impassable.

St. Hilaire's Classification of Mankind.M. Geoffroy St. Hilaire considers that the primary division of mankind, established upon distinctive characters of the first class, constitutes types, not races; and further, that the determination of these types should be founded essentially upon the conformation of the head. He admits four types:

1. The Caucasian-characterized by pre

dominance of the superior parts of the head: i. e., by the region of the brain.

2. The Mongolian-characterized by predominance of the middle part of the head, with breadth of the superior part of the face. 3. The Ethiopian, marked by predominance of the inferior parts of the face, the region of the jaws.

4. The Hottentot-marked by predomin ance of the whole region of the face.

The two elements serving to determine the relative development of the facial regions, are: 1, breadth of the region measured by prominence of the cheek bones; 2, antero-posterior extension, measured by obliquity of the face, or by its forward projection beyond the region of the brain. The now classical terms, orthognathic (vertical-jawed) and prognathic or prognathous (protruding-jawed), express the varieties of the latter character. To express the former-breadth of the superior part of the facehe would coin the term eurygnathic (wide-jawed). With these terms we are enabled in few words to characterize the above four types of mankind. Thus, generally, the Caucasian type is orthognathic; the Mongolian, eurygnathic; the Ethiopian, prognathous; the Hottentot, at once eurygnathic and prognathous. These types are subdivided into races distinguished between themselves by characters sufficiently marked. His scheme admits at present twelve races as well established; but he supposes that others will yet be added.

St. Hilaire has been the first to embody in a system the distinction between the hyperborean peoples of the eastern and those of the western continent. It had been supposed that all the peoples situated near the polar ocean, from Lapland round to Greenland, formed-as living in the same conditions of light and heat, and amid closely similar flora and faunæ-a single race, in characters allied to the Mongolian. But Prince Napoleon brought back from his expedition to the northern seas a series of crania which had served to overthrow that opinion. M. Henry Guérrault, a surgeon on that expedition, first observed the considerable differences between the cranium of a Laplander and that of an Esquimaux. Both these peoples approach the Mongolian type; but the first does so by the globular form of the cranium, the second, by the form of cranium known as the pyramidal: these characters being such as, in the Mongolians, are combined. Thus, there are at least two northern polar races; and St. Hilaire, restricting the term "hyperborean" to the type proper to the polar regions of Europe, applies to that of the same regions in North America the designation of "paraborean."

Gratiolet's Classification of Mankind.-Dr. James Hunt read a paper on this subject before the Brit. Assoc., 1863. He first glanced at previous classifications, from those of Ephorus and Buffon to that of St. Hilaire. He was convinced that in any attempts at such classifica

tion we must rely on anatomical and physiological characters, not on language. He laid great stress on the forms of cranium, and approved Gratiolet's ternary classification, into: 1, the Frontal (European) race; 2, the Parietal (Mongolian); 3, the Occipital (Negro). These cranial distinctions coincide with the differences of mental and moral character, which Dr. Hunt believed to be solely dependent on man's physical structure. Other secondary physical characters could be made available; as those of color, stature, hair and beard, longevity, diseases, temperaments, odor, entozoa, &c. If we were guided solely by language, we should class the negroes of the West India islands as Europeans; their physical characters alone mark them negroes. We can change the language of a race, but scarcely its religion, or its innate ideas of art. Not yet being able to say how the varieties of mankind have originated, we must for the present class them according to the physical and physiological distinctions now existing between them.

Is Race determinable by Language?-Mr. John Crawfurd read a paper before the British Association on "The Celtic Languages in reference to the Question of Race." He was answered in another paper on the same subject and of greater length, by Mr. R. S. Charnock, in which the latter said:

Race can never to a certainty be determined by language. People of the same race may speak two different languages; while, on the other hand, people of different races may come to speak the same language, or languages which are derivatives from the same source. ample of the latter kind is found in the case of the Italian and French nations, which, though of different races, speak languages having a common origin-in the Latin tongue.

An ex

Anthropological Bearings of Language.-Mr. Charnock's paper had previously been read before the London Anthrop. Society; and on that occasion the President, Dr. James Hunt, remarked that, although some were inclined to consider that the field of anthropology did not include the science of language, he could not himself agree in this opinion; but he thought that, through observations upon languages, valuable results might be reached.

Mr. Bendyshe thought the only tenable theory of the origin of human languages was that which Max Müller had designated the "bowгоого theory. The onomatopoeia would, in course of the development of a language, become less apparent; yet it could in earlier ages have formed the whole of the language. Picture-writing points to this theory. He thought, further, that in the comparison of languages, hitherto, it had not been sufficiently remembered, when we hear of such a word as serpens being like sarpa, and erpo, and so in other similar cases, that we are hearing these words as they are uttered by the same mouth, and by one accustomed to a particular style of pronunciation.

Mr. Owen Pike alluded to Max Müller's theory that the root-words, to which he conceives all languages to be reducible, express general ideas. He doubted if this view is proved. Müller says also that general ideas are peculiar to man. But if the speaker said "cat" to his dog, the latter looked, not after any particular cat, but after cats in general. He concluded that animals have general ideas, and that Müller had confounded general with abstract ideas. Müller also concluded that because the Aryan roots express general (abstract) ideas, the words composing the original language of mankind represented such ideas. But it is not pretended that the Aryan is the original language; and no one has traced the connections of the immense number of languages not included in the Aryan family. He thought it singular that the theory of the "unity of language" should be so much more popular than that of the "unity of origin of species." But Lyell had shown the remarkable resemblance between the theory of natural selection as applied to organic species, and the history of the origin of dialects and languages.

Schleicher on "Natural Selection" in Language.-M. Aug. Schleicher has recently published, at Weimar, a pamphlet entitled "The Darwinian Theory and Philology." In this he contends that, as Lyell had intimated, there is a close analogy between the genesis of species among organized beings and in language. The philologist, like the naturalist, is often puzzled by the phenomenon of languages possessing well-marked and apparently ineffaceable points of difference, yet at the same time presenting tokens of a unity of origin. It must be supposed that the accidental divergences in speech were at the first well-nigh innumerable. But the very conditions of the existence of words, would tolerate for each meaning only a few. Those best suited to the taste of the users, or to convenience of use, would alone persistwould in the end triumph over their weaker rivals. Thus, from countless varieties in the outset, the tongues from which the Indo-Germanic, the Turanian, and the Semitic have descended, being better fitted than their competitors for the purposes of human society, drove out the others; and these groups now remain as if originally of separate creation. And it is certainly a singular coincidence, that the same ingenious theory should solve mysteries in sciences whose subject-matter is so widely different.

A reviewer of M. Schleicher's pamphlet mentions, as an instance of the triumph of one tongue over others in the "struggle for life," the fact that the Anglo-Saxon is in England gradually rooting out the Celtic, as it has done the Norman French. The same principle is illustrated on a greatly increased scale in the United States, where the same victorious tongue rapidly and surely supplants all the other imported languages and dialects of European countries.

late Dr. Robert Knox, of England, however, was a prominent advocate of this theory, in which it is contended that Asia is for Asiatics, Africa for Africans, Europe for Europeans; and, as the corollary is drawn by some writers, America for Americans-meaning by this term the aboriginal or red men.

M. Bondin, in a paper entitled "Non-cosmopolitism of the Races of Mankind," read some time since before the Paris Anthrop. Society, declares that in case of most races-the yellow and a few others being excepted-acclimatization is for each circumscribed. He says it is well ascertained that the European races cannot, without continual reënforcement from the mother countries, maintain themselves in tropical Africa and Asia. MM. Rameau and Quatrefages, in remarking upon this paper, questioned whether the European races preserve their type in America. The observations of the latter would tend to the conclusion that, in some parts of North America, both the European and the African races showed in their physiognomy an approach to the aboriginal type of the country. This opinion Prof. W. B. Carpenter had also expressed, some years since.

M. Martin de Moussy, however, regarding these conclusions as doubtful, opposed to them the instance of a German colony, founded in Paraguay in 1535, by soldiers of Charles V.; this people, although they have since that time received no addition of the German element, being declared to be, to this day, perfectly like the Germans of Europe.

Bollaert on the Populations of the New World.-Mr. W. Bollaert read a paper on this subject before the London Anthrop. Society, May 12th, 1863. He leaned to the polygenist theory; and set down the primitive species of men, distinguishable by color, as the White, Brown, Red, Black, &c. He then considered the several ethnic realms of North and South America, and gave the present numbers and characteristics-in some cases the past alsoof the populations of the different countries. Speaking of Mexico, he remarks: "In 1858, the Republic of Mexico had been in existence 38 years, and had had fifty-six violent changes of government." In respect to the negroes in the United States, he declares that, while their number is at present about 4,000,000, during the past three centuries not less than 14,000,000 had been imported from Africa into the country. He thinks the mixture of the white, red, and black species unfortunate-resulting in varieties which are not the best specimens of humanity, if we examine them physiologically, psychologically, or in their political history. The following are the author's conclusions:

1. That, when first discovered in 1492, America had an aboriginal population of probably over 100,000,000: at present that population numbers only about 12,750,000.

2. That in the late Spanish-American colonies, and the present Republics [succeeding

them], the whites have not increased in any way approaching the increase of the whites in North America-a fact which he attributes in great measure to difference of climate.

3. That the fusion, or rather, confusion of the White, Indian, and Negro elements, particularly shown in the Spanish portion of the continent, is unfavorable to a strong, healthy, and prolific progeny; while it results in numberless varieties of mulattoes and zamboes.

4. That there has been for the last 30 years a continual cry from the South American Republics for European immigration; but that, to such immigration there have been two drawbacks-the generally-continued state of anarchy, and the climate.

5. That the mixed breeds or varieties are not so prolific as pure species.

6. That in many of the (S. A.) Republics, children of European parents are reared with more or less difficulty.

7. That the long wars of independence thinned the male population, and, since their termination, many of the Republics have had long periods of sanguinary civil war; a fact which is to be attributed in great measure to the circumstance of the mixed populations.of Whites, Indians, and Negroes.

In the discussion which followed the reading of this paper, Drs. Berthold Seeman and James Hunt confirmed the opinion already named as having been advanced by MM. Rameau and Quatrefages, and by Dr. Carpenter, in respect to the occurrence of a gradual change of type in the European peoples settled in America. The former questioned whether the present population of the United States would not die out, if it were not constantly recruited from Europe. He thought the American people inclining to be moody, but when excited, very vehement; and he stated that among them, in a physical point of view, leanness is prevalent, the calves of the legs not being well developed; and that the hair inclines to grow long and straight, and is only in very rare instances curly. Yet he admitted that in some parts of the United States, as in Kentucky, very fine specimens of men are found.

The President, Dr. Hunt, said that a great change of opinion appeared to be taking place with regard to the acclimatization of man. The same influence unfavorable to the rearing of European children, obtains in India and in Australia, as in South America. These and other facts tend rather to the conviction that man has not that power which has so often been ascribed to him, of living and producing prolific offspring in all the climates of the world.

The North American Climate, and its Effects. -M. E. Desor remarks that the German or Swiss emigrant, upon first landing in New York, thinks the climate much the same as that of his own country. But if he resides there for a time, he soon finds it necessary to change his habits and mode of life. It is about 240 years since the first colonization of

New England, which was made by Englishmen, having all the characteristics of the Anglo-Saxon race. But now, the purely English breed is no longer seen. An Americo-European type has been developed; and this is most marked in the Eastern States, where the race is the least mixed. Hence, it cannot be considered the effect of intermixture; and consequently, again, it must be produced by external influences.

The new type is strongly marked by certain physical characters. Referring the change of type chiefly to the influences of climate, these appear [to explain more definitely M. Desor's statements] to take effect primarily, or in most marked degree, upon the assimilative and nutritive functions of the body, and upon the glandular or secretory system; and they are evidenced chiefly in the loss of adipose tissue and shrinking of the muscles, with a general tendency to attenuation of form, to pallor of the surface, and often delicacy of appearance; these conditions being frequently accompanied with marked excitability, and lack of the power of endurance. An absence of corpulence is almost the invariable rule, the exceptions being, more frequently than otherwise, in case of foreigners. The tendency to delicacy of form and lack of endurance, especially in women, is beginning to be deplored by the American people themselves.

The writer thinks that very few Europeans grow fat in the United States; but that Americans residing for a considerable time in Europe grow more hearty and portly, and that the same result is apt to occur to those who return to Europe after a long stay in America. He says that the hair-which, when kept properly moist by the oily secretion of the scalp, inclines to curl-tends in America to dryness, and to grow stiff and lank; and he appears to assert that in American cities hair-dressers are more numerous than in others, as also that the hair of Europeans coming to the country requires more softening with pomade, &c., than it had been wont to do.

As to personal characteristics, the same writer asserts that the people of this country display a general, feverish activity; that every one is in a hurry; and that, as a rule, people do not walk, but run. This activity appears instinctive; it is the result of habit, or of an innate restlessness. He repeats the charge, so often made against us, of fast eating; and he thinks that, in this country, the use of spirituous liquors [and what is to be said of tobacco?] proves more hurtful than in the countries of Europe.

Possible Causes of the Peculiar Action of the North American Climate.-It is not difficult to understand that, of the statements which have been made by European writers on the subject of the climate of North America, and the influences supposed to be attributable to it, some are over-colored; nor, to believe that some of them are even drawn from imagination, or

find their secret source in the jealousies of nations and races; and without doubt, to some extent, also, in the much more practical motive of a desire to discourage the emigration to this country, continually and actively going on from the countries of Western and Central Europe, of those who constitute an important portion of the capable and productive mem bers of their own industrial classes. But admitting thus much, there is still left in the statements referred to a residuum of unquestionable fact, and which, moreover, is of such character as to render it of the deepest interest to the people of this country. It cannot, the writer is of opinion, be denied that in the population of the United States, in course of two, or at most three generations, the Teuton ceases to be Teutonic, the Englishman to be English, the Celt to be Celtic, and so on; nor, that all these blend or lose themselves in a new race, which has physiological, physiognomical, and to some extent mental characteristics peculiar to itself; nor, yet again, that these characteristics are in so marked a degree individual and uniform, as to forbid the supposition that they may be the merely incidental result of combination of the traits of two or more parent stocks.

It by no means follows that, as some have argued, the new type here developing is but a stage in a physical decay or decline; indeed, it would be easy to cite many facts that go to prove the contrary. In the statement of the physiological and personal characteristics pointed out in the preceding section as marking that type, there is, however, a degree of truth. In the opinion of the compiler of this article, the very nature of the effects which have already been remarked points to the cause or causes by which they are produced, indicating in fact that those causes are climatic, or atmospheric; and he desires briefly to intimate in this place -and without going into details of argument

what, it has appeared to him, are some of those causes, if they be not indeed the precise ones to which the peculiarities of climatic influence here are to be attributed.

It will be borne in mind that, thus far, the climate of our country may be said to have been by immigrant European races fairly tested only in the Atlantic, the Gulf, and the interior regions, and not as yet in those bordering on the Pacific. Now, the effect of unequal solar heat in different latitudes and of the earth's rotation, combined, it is well known, is to keep up certain great circulations both in the oceans and the atmosphere. The resulting warm ocean currents move at once to the poles and eastwardly, and hence flow to the westward shores of the continents, rendering the climate of these, for any given latitude, warmer than that of the eastern shores, against which on the contrary the returning cold currents tend to move; while another consequence is, that in temperate latitudes generally, the air of the western is also more humid than is that of the