The Settlement at Plymouth, Burgoyne's Invasion, The Invention of the Cotton Gin, etc.

Indeed, it may be said that any geographical or historical topic which has been fully worked over in the first and second steps will lead up quickly to a clear understanding of important general truths. No great amount of time, then, need be spent on the third or fourth steps.

A third study which may be classed with those just mentioned is natural science. In this, also, the first and second steps largely predominate and absorb most of the recitation time. Here, again, the general truths arrived at in the third and fourth steps may be briefly stated. But the process of treating a science topic in the first and second steps is quite distinct from that in geography and history. In natural science lessons the children are in the presence of the objects of study, and must learn to observe and scrutinize the facts. The skill required of the teacher is not that of graphic description or narrative, but that of guiding the children to a close observation, description, and inference. This is illustrated by the lessons on the milkweed butterfly, where the children observe the outdoor life of butterflies, collect specimens, examine, compare, and draw conclusions as to butterfly life.

These three studies, therefore, - natural science, geography, and history, — while they agree in giving a strong emphasis to the second step, present a striking variety in the method of treatment suited to the

peculiar materials of each study. They harmonize also in abbreviating the third, fourth, and fifth steps; and yet the general truths formulated and applied in the fourth and fifth steps are so widely divergent that a free inventiveness and originality on the teacher's part are always appropriate. The formal steps lay no clamp upon the teacher.

In arithmetic our present methods of teaching place great emphasis upon the fourth and fifth steps, i.e. upon the statement and application of rules. Generally speaking, neither text-books nor teachers spend much time in the inductive solution of problems before stating the rule. Perhaps nine-tenths of the time of arithmetic recitations is consumed in learning and applying the rules. In arithmetic we have, therefore, in present practice, the exact opposite of what we have described in geography, history, and natural science, and this is, in the main, defensible. Even in the proper teaching of arithmetic by inductive methods a much greater amount of time will be spent on the fourth and fifth steps than on the first and second. Our present practice in arithmetic neglects the inductive approaches to rules, as every experienced teacher knows. The formal steps call attention to the importance of inductive processes in working up to arithmetical rules.

In the study of formal grammar in the seventh and eighth grades there is also a preponderance of the fourth and fifth steps. The amount of language

material already collected in the experience of the children makes it possible to devote the major part of the pupil's time not to the acquisition of new individual facts in language, but to the collection and comparison of familiar facts, to the formulation of general truths and their application. In developing any language principle in the first and second steps it is necessary to bring together familiar language material, but there is no need for description or narrative such as is found in geography and history.

Moreover, in both arithmetic and grammar we are able to work out a somewhat complete and systematic body of thought before completing the grammar school. But in geography, history, and natural science no such complete system is possible. As remarked above, it is necessary in these studies to collect a large body of new and concrete data, and in this lies a large part of the labor and interest of the study. The general truths reached, while extremely important, are not so numerous nor so complete and systematic in statement and arrangement as in arithmetic and grammar. The fact that the definitions and rules of grammar and arithmetic can be definitely developed out of particular data, and formulated in logical statements which can then be applied, makes the treatment of topics in these studies (arithmetic and grammar) almost perfect illustrations of the inductivedeductive method of instruction.

In reading lessons a close analysis is necessary to

show the definite application of the formal steps. Reading has two phases. On the one side is learning how to read, first by mastering the symbols in primary grades, and second by drill in easy, natural oral expression in all the grades. On the other hand, reading means learning to appreciate and interpret the thought content of the lessons, the ideas, experiences, and truths embodied in the best reading matter. In short, reading may signify a mastery of symbols or a study of literature.

The body of knowledge to be acquired in learning how to read appears unsystematic and must be carefully sifted out by the teacher to get at the essential ideas. The work consists largely of learning a set of symbols and word forms and of associating with them the already familiar forms of oral language. It includes also the physical development and exercise of the vocal organs. One of the chief causes of poor reading is that teachers do not sift out the essential ideas in this somewhat miscellaneous body of exercises. While the general truths involved are somewhat fugitive and difficult of formulation, they should be as definitely grasped and stated as possible.

There are certain rules for the spelling and pronunciation of words, for the distinct articulation of vowels and final consonants, for acquiring natural, conversational tones, for the expression of different feelings and emotions, for emphasis and apt expression of thought.

Such general directions do not cover the whole ground, but they indicate what sort of definiteness should characterize the teacher's effort. They may be worked out inductively and applied in the class room. In order to show that the art of reading involves principles, it is only necessary to ask, What is the teacher's chief purpose in any given lesson? e.g. distinct articulation or natural expression. If she has no such distinct purpose, her work, lacking aim, will be loose and indefinite, and specific progress will not be made.

Looked at from the standpoint of the thought and culture material supplied in reading, there are many truths, historical, scientific, and social, which ought to be worked out in reading lessons. Illustrations of this embodiment of truths may be found in "The Vision of Sir Launfal," "The Great Stone Face," "The Psalm of Life," and "Evangeline."

Reading, in both its phases, greatly emphasizes the step of application. It is one of the most directly useful of all studies, first because the ability to read is applied so constantly in most kinds of instruction; and second, because the reading of good books supplies one with the best outfit of social and culture ideals. The fifth step, therefore, in all reading exercises, is doubly important. To apply thoroughly the few rules and principles of oral reading is essential to good work, and bringing to bear the social ideals derived from reading upon the behavior