CHAPTER XII

LAWS UNDERLYING PROCESSES IN TEACHING

If the leading thoughts thus far presented are true, there are certain steps in instruction that are universal. No matter what the study be, whether Latin, mathematics, science, or some other, there is a certain order that the mind must follow in acquiring knowledge. Through the old related experiences (first step, preparation) new individual. notions are reached (second step, presentation); these are compared and their essential characteristics abstracted (third step, comparison), and the resulting general truth is worded. (fourth step, generalization); this generalization finally receives application (fifth step, application). Since these steps are passed through in this order without reference to the nature of the subject-matter presented, they are rightly called the Formal Steps of Instruction. They indicate the order of the movements of the mind, or of the forms through which thought must pass in reaching full maturity.

Now, law is reached the moment that a certain order is shown to be uniform; for a law is nothing more than a statement of a uniform sequence, and a

law of teaching, the statement of a uniform sequence in the process of learning. Hence, it is clear that these natural or Formal Steps of Instruction simply embody the laws of teaching.

I. The most prominent one, often known as the law of induction and discussed particularly in Chapter V, may be stated thus: The order of steps in the acquisition of knowledge is: (a) individual notions; (b) general notions. Eminent authorities on teaching now generally agree upon this law, and it is stated by Huxley in these words: 1

"The subject-matter of biological science is different from that of other sciences, but the methods of all are identical.

"I. Observation of facts—including under this head that artificial observation which is called experiment.

"2. That process of tying up similar facts into bundles ticketed and ready for use, which is called comparison and classification, the results of the process, the ticketed bundles, being named general propositions.

"3. Deduction, which takes us from the general proposition to facts gained — teaches us, if I may so say, to anticipate from the ticket what is inside the bundle. And finally,

"4. Verification, which is the process of ascertaining whether in point of fact our anticipation is a correct

66 Such are the methods of all science whatsoever." Considering 3 and 4 as belonging to step 5, the essential aggreement of the preceding statements with this quotation is evident. It is well to ask what other method there is that could better be followed than this.

II. Another law discussed especially in the first part of Chapter VI is commonly known as the law of apperception, and may be stated in these words: New thoughts can be comprehended only by the help of old thoughts; also, new emotions (and volitions) are dependent both in quality and in strength upon old emotions (and volitions). The same general thought is expressed by Dr. W. T. Harris as follows:1

"Inasmuch as instruction is the leading of the ignorant into knowledge by translating the unknown into the known, there are two factors involved: (a) the unknown subject; (b) the stock of knowledge already possessed by the pupil. The knowledge already possessed is the means by which the unknown can be grasped and retained. All learning is a translating of an unknown into a known, just as the learning of a foreign language proceeds by translating the unfamiliar words into familiar words, and thereby changing the strange into the familiar. This being so, unless constant reference is had by the teacher to the stock of familiar ideas belonging to

1 Rosenkranz, "Philosophy of Education," p. 99.

the pupil, there is imminent danger to instruction. It may pass off into the process of exchanging unknown words for unknown words a movement entirely within the realm of the unfamiliar. Such a process is not instruction, whatever else it may be.”" III. The law of aim, discussed in Chapter VI, is one practically agreed upon in daily life, but until recently it has not been dignified by teachers as a law affecting their instruction. Nevertheless, they are coming rapidly to agree that a definite and attractive aim is a condition of the most effective work of any kind, and hence that a clear aim should be daily fixed in each recitation as elsewhere. Upon this point Dr. Wilhelm Rein says:1—

"The pupil should know beforehand what is coming if he is to bring all his powers to bear upon the work of learning; and it is easier to call out all his effort if he knows beforehand what is to be gained. To conduct a child along an unknown road, toward an unknown object by means of questions and hints, the purpose of which he does not see, to lead him on imperceptibly to an unknown goal, has the disadvantage that it develops neither a spontaneous mental activity nor a clear insight into the subject. Having reached the end of such a line of thought, the pupil looks about himself bewildered. He cannot survey the road which he has just gone over, he does not com

1 "Theorie und Praxis des Volksschulunterrichts. Das erste S jahr," p. 103.

prehend what has happened to him. He stands at the goal but does not see the relation that the result bears to the labor performed. He does not rise to that satisfactory mental activity and favorable disposition of mind which are stimulated by the pursuit of a clearly set purpose."

IV. The law of self-activity has been insisted upon by all great educators in modern times, particularly, however, by Froebel. It may be briefly stated thus: proper development is possible only through a high degree of self-activity. The law was discussed especially in reference to the development method of teaching in the latter part of Chapter VI. Herbert Spencer's opinion is shown in the following quotation 1

"In education the process of self-development should be encouraged to the fullest extent. Children should be led to make their own investigations and to draw their own inferences. They should be told as little as possible, and induced to discover as much as possible. Humanity has progressed solely by selfinstruction, and that to achieve the best results each mind must progress somewhat after the same fashion, is continually proved by the marked success of selfmade men."

As indicated in connection with the discussion of the text-book method, there is abundant room for improvement in the application of this law.

1 Herbert Spencer, Chapter II, in "Education."