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strictly exact, because many springs are, as it were, intermediate between tolerably well characterized groups. The following classification, which is adopted by Dr. Althaus, in his Spas of Europe (Lond. 1862), is perhaps the most convenient: 1. Alkaline waters; 2. Bitter waters; 3. Muriated waters; 4. Earthy waters; 5. Indifferent thermal waters; 6. Chalybeates; 7. Sulphurous waters.

1. The alkaline waters are divisible into (a) Simple alkaline acidulous waters, of which the chief contents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of soda. The most important spas of this class are the thermal springs of Vichy and the cold springs of Fachingen, Geilnau, and Bilin. These waters are useful in certain forms of indigestion, in jaundice arising from catarrh of the hepatic ducts, in gall-stones, in renal calculi and gravel, in gout, in chronic catarrh of the respiratory organs, and in abdominal plethora. Vichy (q.v.) may be taken as the representative of this class of springs. (b) Muriated alkaline acidulous waters, which differ from the preceding sub-group in additionally containing a considerable quantity of chloride of sodium. The most important spas of this kind are the thermal springs of Ems, and the cold springs of Selters, Luhatschowitz, and Salzbrunn. They are useful in chronic catarrhal affections of the bronchial tubes, the stomach, and the intestines, and the larynx; and the Ems waters possess a high reputation in certain chronic diseases of the womb and adjacent organs. (c) Alkaline saline waters, of which the chief contents are sulphate and bicarbonate of soda. The most frequented of these spas are the warm springs of Carlsbad and the cold springs of Marienbad. Patients suffering from abdominal plethora are those most frequently sent to these spas, which often prove of great service if the stagnation of the blood is owing to habitual constipation, pressure from accumulated fæces, or congestion of the liver, unconnected with diseases of the heart or lungs. These waters, especially those of Carlsbad, afford an excellent remedy for the habitual constipation which so frequently arises from sedentary occupations; the result being much more permanent than that produced by strong purgative

waters.

2. The chief contents of the bitter waters are the sulphates of magnesia and soda; and the best-known spas of this class are those of Püllna, Saidschütz, Sedlitz, Friedrichshall, and Kissingen; although there are two English spas-namely, the bitter water of Cherry Rock, near Kingswood, in Gloucestershire, and the Purton spa, near Swindon, in Wiltshire-which "are, by their chemical composition, admirably suited for the treatment of many cases of disease, and may perhaps even prove superior to the continental spas of this class."-Althaus, op. cit. p. 360. These waters act both as purgatives and diuretics, and may therefore be used advantageously in the numerous cases in which it is advisable to excite the action both of the bowels and kidneys.

3. The muriated waters are divisible into (a) Simple muriated waters, of which the chief contents are a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium, or common salt. The chief spas of this class are Wiesbaden and Baden-Baden, which are hot; those of Soden (in Nassau), of Mondorf (near Luxembourg), and of Canstatt (near Stuttgart), which are tepid; and those of Kissingen, Homburg, and Cheltenham, which are cold. They are chiefly employed in cases of gout, rheumatism, scrofula, and abdominal plethora. (b) Muriated lithia waters, of which the chief contents are the chlorides of sodium and lithium. The discovery of lithia in some of the Baden-Baden springs is so recent that there is as yet no sufficient experience concerning their therapeutic action. In gout they first aggravate the pain, but then give relief; and in periodic headache they have been found serviceable. (c) Brines, whose chief contents are a large amount of chloride of sodium. Amongst the spas of this kind those of Rehme, in Westphalia, and Nauheim, in Hesse, have the greatest reputation. They are mostly employed for bathing, and are often of much service in scrofula, anæmia, rheumatism, certain forms of paralysis, and catarrh of the mucous membranes. (d) Iodo-bromated muriated waters, in which, besides a moderate quantity of chloride of sodium, the iodides and bromides of sodium and magnesium are contained in an appreciable quantity. Kreuznach is the most celebrated of the spas of this class. Its waters are used both for drinking and bathing, and are of service in scrofulous infiltrations of the glands, in scrofulous ulcers, in chronic inflammation of the uterus and ovaries, etc. The waters of Hall, in Austria proper, are also of this class, and have a high reputation in cases of bronchocele or goiter.

4. Earthy waters, of which the chief contents are sulphate and carbonate of lime. The most important waters of this class occur at Wildungen, Leuk, Bath, Lucca, and Pisa. The Wildungen water, which is exported in large quantities, is, according to Dr. Althaus, "a capital diuretic, and not only promotes the elimination of gravel and renal calculi, but by its tonic action on the mucous membrane of the urinary passages serves to prevent the formation of fresh concretions. It is also much used for chronic catarrh of the bladder, neuralgia of the urethra and neck of the bladder, dysuria, and incontinence of urine." The baths of Leuk, in which many patients remain nine hours daily (viz., from 4 A.M. to 10 A.M., and from 2 P.M. to 5 P.M.), until an eruption appears, are chiefly used in chronic skin diseases. The waters of Bath, Pisa, and Lucca, which are thermal, are useful in chronic skin diseases, scrofula, gout, rheumatism, etc.

5. Indifferent thermal waters, which usually contain a small amount of saline constituents. Of the spas of this class, the most important are Gastein (95° to 118°), Töplitz (120°), Wildbad (96°), Warmbrunn (100°), Clifton (86°), and Buxton (82°). Their most

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Minerva.

striking effects are to stimulate the skin and excite the nervous system. They are especially used in chronic rheumatism and atonic gout; in diseases of the skin, such as prurigo, psoriasis, lichen; in neuralgia and paralysis due to rheumatic and gouty exudations, to parturition, or to severe diseases, such as typhoid fever and diphtheria; in hysteria; and in general weakness and marasmus."-Althaus, op. cit. p. 421.

6. Chalybeate waters, which are divisible into (a) Simple acidulous chalybeates, whose chief contents are carbonic acid and bicarbonate of protoxide of iron; and (b) Saline acidulous chalybeates, whose chief contents are sulphate of soda and bicarbonate of protoxide of iron. These waters are considered in a special article. See CHALYBEATE WATERS.

7. Sulphurous waters, which contain sulphureted hydrogen or metallic sulphides (sulphurets), or both. The most important sulphurous thermals are those of Aix-laChapelle, Baden (near Vienna), Baréges, Eaux-Chaudes, and Bagnères de Luchon; whilst among the cold sulphurous springs, those of Nenndorf (in Hessen-Nassau) and Harrogate are of great importance. They are extensively used in chronic diseases of the skin, and are of service in many cases in which exudations require to be absorbed, as in swellings of the joints, in old gunshot-wounds, and in chronic gout and rheumatism. In chronic laryngeal and bronchial catarrh, they frequently give relief, and in chronic poisoning by lead or mercury, they favor the elimination of the poison, although to a far less degree than iodide of potassium taken internally. The sulphurous waters are employed externally and internally, and mineral mud-baths are believed by many physicians to form a valuable auxiliary to this treatment.

For further information on this subject, the reader is referred to the work of Dr. Althaus (of which free use has been made in this article), and to the Dictionnaire Général des Eaux Minérales et d'hydrologie Médicale of MM. Durand-Fardel, Le Bret, and Lefort.

See AERATED WATERS, ante.

MINERAL WATERS, ARTIFICIAL. MINERSVILLE, a borough in e. Pennsylvania, on a branch of the Philadelphia and Reading railroad at its junction with the Schuylkill Haven and Mine Hill railroad, and the terminus of the People's railway to Mount Carbon; pop. '70, 3,699. It is on the West Branch of the Schuylkill river, in the center of the anthracite coal mining region, not far from Broad mountain, 46 m. n.e. of Harrisburg, and 4 m. w. of Pottsville, in the southern or Schuylkill coal field. Other mineral deposits are sandstone, shale, and limestone. It is in a valley surrounded by hills seamed with iron ore and covered with the rough and dangerous apparatus of anthracite coal mining. It has a newspaper, 10 churches, a public library, water works, a well-organized fire department; there are machine shops and iron foundries, an anthracite furnace, a car factory, soap and shoe factories, and flour and saw mills.

MINERVA, the name of a Roman goddess, identified by the later Græcising Romans with the Greek Athene, whom she greatly resembled, though, like all the old Latin divinities, there was nothing anthropomorphic in what was told concerning her. Her name is thought to spring from the same root as mens (the mind) and monere (to warn or advise); and the ancient Latin scholar and critic, Varro, regarded her as the impersonation of divine thought-the plan of the material universe of which Jupiter was the creator, and Juno the representative. Hence all that goes on among men, all that constitutes the development of human destiny (which is but the expression of the divine idea or intention), is under her care. She is the patroness of arts and trades; and was invoked alike by poets, painters, teachers, physicians, and all kinds of craftsmen. She also guides heroes in war; and, in fact, every wise idea, every bold act, and every useful design, owes something to the high inspiration of this virgin goddess. Her oldest temple at Rome was that on the Capitol, but she had another on the Aventine. Her festival was held in March, and lasted five days, from the 19th to the 23d inclusive.

ATHENE, or PALLAS ATHENE, the Greek goddess corresponding, as we have said, to the Roman Minerva, was one of the few truly grand ethical divinities of Greek mythology. Different accounts are given of her origin and parentage, probably from the jumbling together of local legends; but the best known, and in ancient times, the most orthodox version of the myth represented her as the daughter of Zeus and Metis. Zeus, we are told, when he had attained supreme power after his victory over the Titans, chose for his first wife Metis (Wisdom); but being advised by both Uranus and Gæa (Heaven and Earth), he swallowed her, when she was pregnant with Athene. When the time came that Athene should have been born, Zeus felt great pains in his head, and caused Hephaestus (Vulcan) to split it up with an axe, when the goddess sprang forthfully armed, according to the later stories. Throwing aside the thick veil of anthropomorphism which conceals the significance of the myth, we may see in this account of Athene's parentage an effort to set forth a divine symbol of the combination of power and wisdom. Her father was the greatest, her mother the wisest of the gods. She is literally born of both, and so their qualities harmoniously blend in her. It is possible that the constant representation of her as a strictly maiden goddess, who had a real, and not a merely prudish antipathy to marriage, was meant to indicate that qualities like hers could not be mated, and that, because she was perfect, she was doomed to virginity. She was not, however, a cold unfeeling divinity; on the contrary, she warmly and

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actively interested herself in the affairs of both gods and men. She sat at the right hand of Zeus, assisting him with her counsels; she helped him in his wars, and conquered Pallas and Encelados in the battles of the giants. She was the patroness of agriculture, invented the plow and rake, introduced the olive into Attica, and (in harmony with her character as the personification of active wisdom) taught men the use of almost all the implements of industry and art; and is said to have devised nearly all feminine employments. Philosophy, poetry, and oratory were also under her care. She was the protectress of the Athenian state, was believed to have instituted the court of justice on Mars' Hill (the Areiopagus). As a warlike divinity, she was thought to approve of those wars only which were undertaken for the public good, and conducted with prudence; and thus she was regarded as the protectress in battle of those heroes who were distinguished as well for their wisdom as their valor.__In the Trojan wars, she favored the Greeks-who, in point of fact, were in the right. Her worship was universal in Greece, and representations of her in statues, busts, coins, reliefs, and vase-paintings were and are numerous. She is always dressed, generally in a Spartan tunic, with a cloak over it, and wears a helmet, beautifully adorned with figures of different animals, the ægis, the round Argolic shield, a lance, etc. Her countenance is beautiful, earnest, and thoughtful, and the whole figure majestic.

MINERVI'NO, a t. of southern Italy, in the province of Bari,_called the Balcony of Puglia, from the extensive view it commands of several cities. It stands on a fine hill, and enjoys excellent air. Pop. 13,800.

MINES, in law. In England and Ireland the crown has the right to all mines of gold and silver; but where these metals are found in mines of tin, copper, iron, or other baser metal, then the crown has only the right to take the ore at a price fixed by statute. As a general rule, whoever is the owner of freehold land has a right to all the mines underneath the surface, for his absolute ownership extends to the center of the earth. When the land is given by will or otherwise to a tenant for life, while a third party has the reversion, then the tenant for life is held to be entitled not to open mines which have never before been opened, but to carry on such as have been open, and are going mines. So in the case of a lease of lands for agricultural purposes, if nothing is said as to mines, the tenant is not entitled to open any mines, for that would be committing waste. It is not uncommon for one person to be owner of the surface of the land and another to be owner of the mines beneath; or several persons may be owners of different kinds of mines lying above each other in the different strata. Many questions have been raised lately between railway companies and mine-owners as to their respective rights and liabilities. When a railway passes through a mining country it is generally optional with the owner to sell to the company merely the surface of the lands, reserving to himself the mines beneath; and it is usually provided that, if ever the owner work his mines so near to the railway as to endanger its stability, the company must have notice of that fact, and then, if necessary, may purchase the mines immediately under the railway. But the courts have determined that even though the owner of the land reserve his right to minerals, he is nevertheless prevented, by common law, from working the mines immediately under the railway, so as to endanger the use of the railway. In these matters the law of Scotland does not at all differ, though, as to other points of the common law, some differences of no great importance occur. See Paterson's Compendium of English and Scottish Law.

The practical working of mines and collieries in any part of Great Britain has been controlled by certain recent acts of parliament, with a view to insure the greater safety of the persons working them, and to prevent the employment of women and children. Thus, the owners of mines are prohibited, by the mines regulation acts, 1872 (repealing prior acts), from employing any female or boy under 10 underground. Boys under 16 can only be so employed ten hours per day, and boys under 12 must attend school at certain times. No owner or worker of a mine or colliery is allowed to pay the wages of the men at any tavern, public-house, beer-shop, or place of entertainment, or any office or outhouse connected therewith. No person under 18 is to be employed at the entrance of any mire, to have charge of the steam-engine or windlass, or other machinery and tackle for letting down and bringing up the men. Inspectors are appointed by government for the express purpose of visiting mines, and seeing that the statutes are complied with. The statutes in question now apply not only to coal-mines and collieries, but to metalliferous mines of all kinds. Whenever an inspector, on examination, finds anything dangerous or defective in the mine, he is bound to give notice to the owner, so that it may be amended. In case of accidents occurring in the mine, caused by explosion, and resulting in loss of life or bodily injury, the owner is bound, within twenty-four hours thereafter, to send notice to the secretary of state, and to the district inspector of mines, specifying the probable cause of the accident.

MINES, MILITARY, constitute at once one of the most important departments in military engineering, and a very formidable accessory both in the attack and defense of fortresses. A military mine consists of a gallery of greater or less length, run from some point of safety under an opposing work, or under an area over which an attacking force must pass, and terminating in a chamber which, being stored with gunpowder, can be exploded at the critical moment. Mines are of great use to the besiegers in the overthrow

of ramparts and formation of a breach; the countermines of the besieged in undermining the glacis over which the assaulting column must charge, and blowing them into the air, or in destroying batteries erected for breaching, are equally serviceable. But far above the actual mischief wrought by the mine-often very great-is its moral influence on the troops, and especially on the assailants. The bravest soldiers, who advance with out flinching to the very mouth of the cannon which they see, will hesitate to cross ground which they suppose to be undermined, and on which they may be dashed to destruction in a moment, without the power of averting the unseen danger. The first employment of mines was very ancient, and merely consisted in obtaining an entrance to the interior of towns by passing beneath the defenses; but this soon fell into disuse, the chances of success being merely those of introducing a body of men before the besieged discovered the mine. The next use occurred during the middle ages, and was more destructive. The miners went no further than beneath the wall, then diverged to either side, and undermined the wall, say for about 100 feet. During the process, the wall was sustained by timber-props; and these being ultimately set on fire, the wall fell; and the besiegers, who had awaited the opportunity, rushed in at the breach. This use of mines of attack necessitated those of defense, which obtained in mediæval times and have ever since kept the name of countermines." The earliest subterranean defense consisted of a gallery surrounding the fort in advance of the foot of the wall, and termed an "envelope-gallery.' From this the garrison would push forward small branches or tributary galleries, whence they could obtain warning of the approach of hostile miners, and by which they succeeded, at times, in overthrowing the battering-rams or towers of the besiegers.

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Two centuries appear to have elapsed between the introduction of gunpowder into European warfare and its application to subterranean operations. The first instance of this occurred in 1503, at the siege of the Castello del' Uovo, in the bay of Naples, which a French garrison had succeeded in holding for three years against the combined Spanish and Neapolitan forces. At length, a Spanish capt., Pedro Navarro, devised a gallery into the rock, which he stored with powder, whereof the explosion, hurling portions of the rock and many of the besieged into the sea, caused the immediate capture of the place. At once the use of mines of attack spread throughout Europe; and so irresistible were they soon considered, that it was not unusual for the besieger, after preparing his mine, to invite the besieged to inspect it, with the view of inducing the latter at once to surrender. Defense soon availed itself of the new power, and, retaining the envelope-gallery as a base, ran small countermines in many directions, to ascertain by hearing the approach of the enemy's sappers-his work being audible, to a practiced ear, at a horizontal distance of 60 feet. Small charges were then exploded, which, without creating surface disturbance, blew in the approaching gallery, and buried the sappers in its ruins. Thus commenced a system of subterranean warfare, requiring the greatest risk and courage, in which the operator was in constant danger of being suffocated. Of course, in such a system, the balance of advantage lay with the besieged, who had ample opportunities before the siege commenced, of completing his ramifications in every direction, and, if desirable, of revetting them with masonry, which much diminished the chance of being blown in; while the assailant, no longer able to cross the glacis by an open zigzag trench, was compelled to engage in a most uncertain subterranean advance. The French engineer, Belidor, in the 18th c., restored the advantage to the attack, by demonstrating that the explosion of a very large mass of powder in a mine which had not yet entered the labyrinth of defensive mines, effected the destruction of the latter for a great space round, clearing the way with certainty for the hostile advance. Although the primary purpose of a mine is the explosion of a charge of powder, they are often used as a means of communication between different works, or between different parts of the same work, some being constructed of size sufficient to permit the passage of four men abreast, of horses, and of artillery.

It is, of course, impossible, in such a work as this, to give even an outline of the professional part of military mining; but the article would be incomplete without some allusion to the main principles.

Mines are either vertical-when they are called shafts-horizantal, or inclined, in either of which cases, they are "gallerics," the word "ascending" or "descending" being added if there be inclination. The dimensions range from the "great gallery," 6 ft. 6 in. by 7 ft., to the "small branch"-the last diminutive of the gallery-which has but 2 ft. 6 in. height, with a breadth of 2 feet. The most frequent work is the "common gallery," 4 ft. 6 in. by 3 ft., which is considered the easiest for the miner.

The sapper's tools are numerous, but most in request are his shovel, pickaxe, and, above all, his "push-pick;" he has besides a barrow, a small wagon, a lamp, and other accessories. As he advances, it is necessary to line his gallery, always at the top, and almost always at the sides. This he does either by frames-which resemble doorframes, and serve to retain horizontal planks or sheeting" in position against the earth -or by cases somewhat resembling packing-cases, of little depth, which are used to form the sides and top. With cases, galleries are supposed to advance one foot and a half per hour; while with frames, the progress is barely more than half that amount.

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When a mine is exploded, the circular opening on the surface is called the crater; the line of least resistance is the perpendicular from the charge to the surface; the half

Minims.

diameter of the crater is its radius; and the radius of explosion is a line from the charge to the edge of the crater, on the hypothenuse of the triangle, the revolution of which would form the cone. When the diameter equals the line of least resistance, the crater is called a one-lined crater; when it doubles that line, a two-lined crater; and so on. The common mine for ordinary operations is the two-lined crater; and for this the charge of powder should-in ground of average weight and tenacity-be in pounds a number equal to one-tenth of the cube of the line of least resistance in feet, for example, at a depth of 18 ft., the charge should consist of 583 pounds. In surcharged mines, or globes of compression, as introduced by Belidor, vastly greater charges are employed, and craters of six lines are sometimes produced. The rules, in these cases, for computing the charges vary exceedingly, according to different engineers, and in every case are very complicated. Previous to the explosion, the gallery is filled up behind the charge, or tamped, with earth, sand-bags, etc., to prevent the force of the powder wasting itself in the mine. This tamping must extend backwards for one and a half or twice the length of the line of least resistance. The mine is commonly fired by means of a powder-hose, composed of strong linen, inclosed in a wooden pipe laid carefully through the tamping, or by wires from a voltaic battery.

In the system of countermines the magistral gallery is immediately within the wall of the counterscarp, through orifices in which it derives light and air, and by its loopholes, the defenders can take in rear any enemy who might obtain momentary possession of the ditch. Further in advance, and reached by galleries of communication is the envelope-gallery from which radiate the listeners. To prevent the enemy's advances, these listeners should not be more than about 54 feet apart. Besides listening, they are used for aggressive purposes, such as driving branches and blowing in or up hostile works. Modern engineers object to the envelope-gallery, as affording too good a base to the enemy, should he obtain possession of it; and either dispense with it altogether, or merely retain it in short sections. At suitable points among the mines, small magazines for tools and powder are formed; and at about every 30 yards, loopholed doors of great strength are made, to stop the advance of an enemy, should he break into the galleries.

In the course of their excavations, hostile miners frequently meet, or approach within a few feet. It becomes, then, merely a question of time which shall destroy the other; shells, pistols, pikes, and petards, as well as small mines, being used with murderous effect.

Provision is made for pumping foul air out of mines; but such military works are in general badly ventilated.

MINGHETTI, CAVALIERE MARCO, a distinguished Italian writer and statesman, and for a time prime minister of Italy, was born at Bologna, on Nov. 8, 1818. He belonged to an opulent commercial family, and on the termination of his studies, entered on an extensive continental tour, with the object of closely investigating the political, social, and economical institutions of France, Germany, and more especially of Britain. On his return from traveling, he published his maiden essay, inculcating the great commercial advantages of free trade, as existing in England, and espousing with warmth the economical views of Richard Cobden. In 1846 Minghetti opened his political career by starting a journal of liberal tendencies, soon after the advent of Pius IX. to power; in 1847 he was elected member of the Consulta delle Finanze, and in 1848 became minister of public works. Having speedily lost faith in papal progression, Minghetti withdrew from office, and joined the army of Char es Albert in Lombardy, where he was warmly received by the king, and appointed capta n. After the battle of Goito he was promoted major; and for his bravery in the engagement of Custoza, he received from the king the cross of the knights of St. Maurizio. On the conclusion of the war, Minghetti resumed his study of political economy, and gained the confidence of Cavour, by whom he was consulted during the conferences of Paris. He subsequently became secretary for foreign affairs, and only resigned with Cavour on the peace of Villafranca. Minghetti became minister of the interior in 1860, and premier in 1863. On leaving the ministry, he went as ambassador to London in 1868, and was subsequently, for a short time, minister of agriculture. In 1873 he became premier of a new ministry. His chief work is Della Economia pubblica e delle sue Attinenze con la morale, e Col diritto (1859).

MINGRE'LIA, the name of a division of Russia in Asia, on the Black sea; partly bounded by Circassia; 2,600 sq.m.; pop., 240,000. It is a rugged, mountainous country, but, in the southern part, fertile slopes lie along the river Rion, the most important stream in this part of Russia. Extensive forests of valuable timber cover the mountains, and there are mines of copper, some of which are worked; gold has also been found. The country is peopled by Georgians; not, however, of as fine a type as those who inhabit the Caucasus. It was formerly a part of Georgia, and, at a later period, was ruled by native princes; one of whom, in 1867, ceded his rights to Russia, on being paid the sum of 1,000,000 roubles. Mingrelia was the ancient Colchis, where was the mythical golden fleece, in pursuit of which occurred the expedition of the Argonauts (q.v.). It was also the birth-place of Medea. The productions are tobacco, maize, rice, wool, honey, and wine. Silk is manufactured to some extent.

MINHO. See ENTRE DOURO E MINHO

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