Lira.

the Writings of Epiphanius; The Catalogue of Popes in Eusebius; Chronology of the Bishops of Rome to the Middle of the Fourth Century, and numerous articles in German periodicals.

LIPTO', a co. of n. Hungary, drained by the Wang, an affluent of the Danube; 872 sq.m.; pop. in '70, 79,273, mostly Slavs. The inhabitants are engaged chiefly in agriculture and the raising of cattle; but there are mines of gold, silver, copper, and iron. Capital, Szent-Miklós.

LIQUATION, or ELIQUATION, a method of reducing silver ores by means of a triple alloy of copper, silver, and lead, which, being cast into disk-shaped masses, are placed on edge in a furnace on an inclined plane of iron, containing a small channel, and raised to a red heat; the lead, on melting out, by its attraction for silver, carries that metal with it, leaving the copper as a reddish-black spongy mass.

LIQUEUR. This name is given to any alcoholic preparation which is flavored or perfumed and sweetened to be more agreeable to the taste; there is consequently a large class of liqueurs, of which the following are the principal: aniseed cordial, prepared by flavoring weak spirit with aniseed, coriander, and sweet fennel seed, and sweetening with finely clarified syrup of refined sugar. Absinthe is sweetened spirit flavored with the young tops of certain species of artemisia (q.v.). Clove cordial, much sold in the London gin-shops, is flavored with cloves, bruised, and colored with burned sugar.

Kümmel, or doppel-kümmel, is the principal liqueur of Russia; it is made in the ordinary way with sweetened spirit, flavored with cumin and caraway seeds, the latter usually so strong as to conceal any other flavor. It is chiefly made at Riga, and there are two qualities: that made in Riga is the sort in common use, and is not the finest; the better sort is only manufactured in smaller quantities at Weissenstein, in Esthonia; the chief difference is in the greater purity of the spirit used. Maraschino is distilled from cherries bruised, but instead of the wild kind, a fine, delicately flavored variety, called marazques, grown only in Dalmatia, is used. This cherry is largely cultivated around Zara, the capital, where the liqueur is chiefly made. Great care is taken in the distillation to avoid injury to the delicate flavor, and the finest sugar is used to sweeten it.

Noyau, or crême de noyau, is a sweet cordial flavored with bruised bitter-almonds. In Turkey, the fine-flavored kernels of the Mahaleb cherry are used, and in some places the kernels of the peach or the apricot. Peppermint, a common liqueur, especially amongst the lower classes of London, where very large quantities are sold; it usually consists of the ordinary sweetened gin, flavored with the essential oil of peppermint, which is previously rubbed up with refined sugar, and formed into an oleosaccharum, which enables it to mix with the very weak spirit.

Curaçoa and kirschwasser are described under their own names.

LIQUID, a consonant pronounced by a closure of the vocal organs greater than is required in the utterance of the closer vowels, but less than is demanded by the mute consonants. The liquid consonants are 1, r, w, y, which are all subject to whispered aspiration.

LIQUIDAM BAR, a genus of trees of the natural order altingiaea, and the only genus of the order, having flowers in male and female catkins on the same tree, the fruit formed of two-celled, many-seeded capsules, and the seeds winged. They are tall trees, remarkable for their fragrant balsamic products. L. styraciflua, the AMERICAN LIQUIDAMBAR, or SWEET GUM tree, is a beautiful tree with palmate leaves, a native of Mexico and the United States. It grows well in Britain. Its wood is of a hard texture and fine grain, and makes good furniture. From cracks or incisions in the bark, a transparent, yellowish balsamic fluid exudes, called liquid liquidambar, oil of liquidambar, American storax, copalm balsam, and sometimes, but erroneously, white balsam of Peru. It gradually becomes concrete and darker colored. Its properties are similar to those of storax. That of commerce is mostly brought from Mexico and New Orleans.-L. orientale, a smaller tree with palmate leaves, is a native of the Levant and of more eastern regions, and yields abundantly a balsamic fluid, which has been supposed to be the liquid storax imported from the Levant, but on this point there is diversity of opinion.

LIQUIDATED DAMAGES. The amount of damages fixed beforehand by the terms of an agreement as the definite sum to be paid by the party to such agreement who violates such agreement. The courts, which construe strictly and will relieve against penalties, will in general support a stipulation for liquidated damages for a breach of contract, but they will hold any particular stipulation to be either a penalty or liquidated damages, according as they determine the intent of the parties as evidenced by the tenor of the whole instrument. If that intent be still ambiguous, the stipulation will be declared a penalty. But if it appear that there is no means to properly find out the damages sustained, the stipulation will be held to be an agreement for liquidated damages, even if it be called a penalty in the agreement itself.

LIQUIDS. See HEAT, HYDROSTATICS, and FUSING AND FREEZING POINTS.

LIRA (Lat. libra; see LIVRE), an Italian silver coin of greater or less value, according to time and place. The Tuscan lira was equal to 80 French centimes; the Austrian lira or zwanziger was about the same value. The present lira Italiana, or lira nuova, of the Italian kingdom is equal to the French franc, and is divided into 100 centimes.

LI'RIA, a t. of Spain, in the province of Valencia, and 12 m. n.w. from Valencia. The plain in which it stands is luxuriant with vines and olives. On the summit of a hill in the vicinity is the collegio de San Miguel, an ancient and venerable monastic pile. Pop. 8,500.

LIRIODEN'DRON. See TULIP TREE.

LISAINE, BATTLE OF, a famous engagement in the Franco-Prussian war, which raged for three days on the small French river Lisaine, which rises at the southern termination of the Vosges, flows w. of the fortress of Belfort, and enters the Savoureuse at Montbéliard. The German gen. von Werder retreated before the French under Bourbaki, and took a position along the Lisaine, in order to prevent the French from attacking the German troops before Belfort, or from making an invasion at that point into Germany. Von Werder, with a force of 43,000 men, well supplied with heavy guns, held a distance of about 10 m. on the left bank of the river, which commands the right bank. The villages along the stream were barricaded. Bourbaki, with 120,000 men, made desperate efforts to drive the Germans from their position, but the latter were so strongly fortified that these efforts were without avail. It was one of the severest engagements of the war. The German loss in killed and wounded was 81 officers and 1847 men; the

French loss was 6,000.

LIS BON (Portug. Lisboa; called by the ancient Lusitanians Olisipo or Ulisippo, and by the Moors Lishbuna), the capital of Portugal, is situated in the province of Estremadura, on the right bank of the Tagus, which is here about 6 m. wide, and about 18 m. from the mouth of the river. Pop. 224,063. The city is built partly on the shores of the Tagus, and partly on three larger and four smaller hills. Its appearance is wonderfully picturesque; and its resemblance, in point of situation and magnificence of prospect, to Constantinople, at precisely the opposite extremity of Europe, has been frequently remarked. Including its suburbs, it extends about 5 m. along the river. The harbor, which is safe and spacious, is protected by strong forts, but the city itself is unwalled and without any fortifications. The eastern and older part, which lies around the Castle-hill-an eminence crowned with an old Moorish castle, destroyed by earthquakesis composed of steep, narrow, crooked, badly-paved streets, with high, gloomy, wretchedlooking houses; but the newer portions are well and regularly built. The most beautiful part is called the New Town-it stretches along the Tagus, and is crowded with palaces. Among the places or squares, the principal are the Praço do Commercio, on the Tagus, 565 ft. long, 520 broad, surrounded on three sides with splendid edifices; the Praço do Rocio, in the new town, forming the market-place, 1800 ft. long and 1400 broad; and the Passeio Publico. The whole of the new town, and the district round the royal castle, is lighted with gas. Lisbon has 70 parish churches, 200 chapels, numerous monasteries, hospices, and hospitals, 6 theaters, and 2 amphitheaters. The most con. spicuous public buildings are the church of the Patriarch, the monastery of the Heart of Jesus (with a cupola of white marble), the church of St. Roque (built of marble), the Foundling hospital (receiving annually about 1600 children). St. James's hospital (capable of receiving 1,600 sick persons), the royal palaces of Ajuda, Nossa Senhora das Necessidades, and Bemposta, the custom-houses, the arsenal, and the National theater, on the site of the old inquisition. The city has numerous educational and scientific institutions, and a national library containing 160,000 vols. Among notable objects, the most important is the Alcántara aqueduct, Os Arcos or Aguas livres, finished in 1743, which supplies all the public fountains and wells of the city. It is 18 m. in length, and in one place 260 ft. high, and remained uninjured at the great earthquake. It is the greatest piece of bridge-architecture in the world. Lisbon has a royal arsenal, shipbuilding docks, and powder-mills, besides private manufactories of silks, porcelain, paper, and soap; also iron-foundries, and jewelry and trinket establishments. Its chief exports are oranges, citrons, wool, oil, and leather. The shipping accommodation is extensive and commodious, and the trade with Africa is an important and flourishing The imports in 1875 were valued at £2,880,295; and the exports at £1,839,507. About 30,000 Galegos (Galicians) earn a subsistence here as porters, water-carriers, and laborers.

one.

Lisbon is said to have been founded by the Phenicians, a ndwas a flourishing city, the capital of Lusitania, when first visited by the Romans. It was taken by the Moors in 712, from whom it was recaptured by Alfonso I. in 1147. It became the seat of an archbishopric in 1390, and of a patriarchate in 1716. Lisbon has been frequently visited by earthquakes; that of 1755 destroyed a great part of the city and 60,000 inhabitants. It was captured by the French in 1807, but given up to the British in 1808, after which it was protected by the lines of Torres Vedras.

LIS'BURN, a market t. and parliamentary borough, situated on the river Lagan, partly in the county of Antrim, partly in the county of Down, Ireland. It is distant from Dublin 97 m. n.n.e., and 81 s.s. w. from Belfast, with both which places it is connected by the Dublin and Belfast Junction railway. The pop. in 1871 was 9,326; of whom 4,708 were Protestant Episcopalians, 2,146 Roman Catholics, 1841 Presbyterians, 369 Methodists, and the rest of other denominations. Lisburn originated in the erection of a castle, in 1610, by sir Fulk Conway, to whom the manor was assigned in the settlement of James I.; but its importance dates from the settlement of a number of Hugue

not families, who, after the revocation of the edict of Nantes, established themselves at Lisburn, where they introduced the manufacture of linen and damask, after the method and with the machinery then in use in the Low Countries. It is a clean and well-ordered town, with a convenient market, and considerable manufactures of linens and damasks; besides which, bleaching, dyeing, flax-dressing, flax-spinning, etc., are carried on. Its parish church is the cathedral of Down and Connor, and is interesting as the burialplace of Jeremy Taylor, who was bishop of that see, and died at Lisburn in 1667. Lisburn returns one member to parliament.

LISIEUX (ancient Noviomagus Lexovium), a t. of northern France, in the dep. of Calvados, on the Touques, 27 m. e.s.e. of Caen, at the entrance of a beautiful valley. The principal building is the church of St. Pierre (formerly a cathedral), belonging to the 13th c., and built on the site of an older edifice, in which Henry II. of England married Eleanor of Guienne. Lisieux is the center of an extensive manufacture of coarse linens, woolens, flannels, horsecloths, ribbons, etc., which gives employment to more than 3,000 workmen. Pop. '76, 18,396.

LISKEARD, a municipal and parliamentary borough in Cornwall, is situated in a well-cultivated district, on the Looe, 16 m. w.n. w. of Plymouth. Two miles to the s. of the town is a famous spring, said to have been presented to the inhabitants by St. Keyne, and the virtue of whose waters is set forth in Southey's well-known ballad, The Well of St. Keyne. There are manufactures of serge and leather, and considerable traffic in the produce of the tin, copper, and lead mines of the neighborhood. Liskeard returns a member to parliament. Pop. '71, 6,575.

LISLE, GUILLAUME DE, 1675-1726; son of Claud de Lisle, geographer and historian; b. in Paris. At an early age he devoted himself to historical and geographical studies, and when but 9 years old constructed several charts of ancient history. He completely reconstructed the system of geography current in Europe at the beginning of the 18th c. by the publication of maps in which he corrected errors inherited from the time of Ptolemy. He also constructed a celestial and a terrestrial globe. He was admitted to the academy of sciences in 1702, and afterwards appointed tutor in geography to Louis XV., who created for him in 1818 the title of "first geographer to the king," with a pension of 1200 livres. He is said to have drawn no less than 134 maps. A corrected edition of his map of the world appeared in 1724. He contributed several memoirs to the Collections of the academy of sciences.

L'ISLET, a s. co. of the province of Quebec, Canada, bounded s.e. by Maine and n. w. by the St. Lawrence; traversed by the Grand Trunk railroad; 793 sq.m.; pop. "71, 13,517, of whom 13,375 were of French descent. Capital, St. Jean Port Joli.

LISMORE, an island of Argyleshire, 6 m. from Oban, is situated in Loch Linnhe, and is 10 m. in length, with an average breadth of 1 miles. It contains the remains of several interesting buildings, as Achinduin castle-formerly the residence of the bishops of Argyle-an old cathedral, and castle Rachal, a Scandinavian fort, now very ruinous. The island is for the most part under cultivation. Pop. '71, 703.

LIS PENDENS, a pending suit. Pendency of a suit begins, at law, as soon as an attachment is made under the writ; at equity, with the service of the subpoena on the defendant. Every one who takes any step in regard to the property affected by the pending suit is presumed at equity to have notice of such suit, and his rights will be correspondingly affected; thus, a purchaser of such property, though never made party to the suit, takes subject to the decree made in it; and a suit pending, brought by a prior mortagee whose mortgage has never been put on record, is held sufficient notice to a following mortagee of the existence of the prior mortgage. Though these applications of lis pendens occur only in courts of equity, the legal doctrine, that a vendee holds by the same title as his vendor, and no better, amounts to much the same thing.

LISSA, anciently Issa, an island in the Adriatic, off the Dalmatian coast, and belonging to Dalmatia; 10 m. long, 5 broad; 43° 10′ n. lat., 33° 51' e. long.; 38 sq.m.; pop. 7,000. It was long known to the ancients, and is mentioned by Scylax as a Greek colony. In Cæsar's time it was styled nobilissimum earum regionum oppidum, and Pliny says the inhabitants were Roman citizens. It is often referred to by Polybius in his account of the Illyrian war. When besieged by Teuta, the siege was raised on the appearance of the Roman fleet, and the inhabitants placed themselves under the protection of Rome. It was afterwards a station for the Roman galleys in their wars with the kings of Macedon. Its shores are steep and rocky, and it is accessible only at a few bays. The soil is not fertile. The chief products are wine, oil, almonds, and anchovies.. The island is noted in modern times for two victories, that gained by the British over the French in 1811, and that by the Austrians under gen. Tegethoff over the Italians under admiral Persano. Its two harbors are strongly fortified. Lissa or San Giorgio is the principal town and seaport on the n.e. shore, with a population of 2,800.

LISSA (Pol. Leszna), a t. of Prussia, in the province of Posen, and the circle of Fraustadt, 44 m. s.s. w. of Posen. Pop. 75, 11,069, of whom nearly one half are Jews. Lissa has a fine town-house, a castle, one Roman Catholic and three Protestant churches, with manufactures of woolens, leather, and tobacco. This place became for a time the chief seat of the Bohemian brothers.

LIST. See FILLET.

LIST, FRIEDRICH, 1789-1846; b. Reutlingen in Würtemberg; was for two or three years professor of political economy at the university of Tübingen; was elected member of the diet of Würtemberg, but was expelled in 1822 for his censure of the acts of the government, and condemned to ten months' imprisonment. He fled to Switzerland and Alsace, but returning in 1824 was imprisoned in the fortress of Asperg. Having received a pardon he emigrated to America and settled in Pennsylvania. In 1827 he published his Outlines of a New System of Political Economy, which attracted much attention. He became a large land-holder, and in connection with others settled the two towns of Port Clinton and Tamaqua in Schuylkill county. On the latter he discovered a valuable deposit of anthracite. At this time he was much interested in the establishment of railroads. In 1830 he was appointed U. S. consul at Hamburg, but soon came back to Pennsylvania, and in 1832 returned to Europe, acting for a while in 1833 as American consul at Leipsic. In 1837 he went to Paris, where he wrote several letters for the Augsburg Allgemeine Zeitung, which were afterwards published in a volume under the title of Das Nationale System der Politischen Oekonomie. In 1843 he established at Augsburg the Zollvereinsblatt, in which he advocated a national commercial system and a national fleet. He visited Austria and Hungary in 1844, and England in 1846 for the purpose of forming a commercial alliance between Germany and that country, in which his efforts were not successful. Depressed by the failure of his plans, the loss of his health and property, he shot himself in a fit of insanity. His works, with a biography, were published in 3 volumes in 1850 at Stuttgart.

LISTON, JOHN, 1776-1846; b. London; educated at Dr. Barrow's school; became second master of St. Martin's school, founded by archbishop Tenison. For acting in theatrical plays with the large boys he was expelled from the school, and went upon the stage, excelling in low comedy. He acted at the Haymarket theater in 1806, and afterwards at Covent Garden, Drury Lane, and the Olympic. He was greatly praised by Lamb, Hood, and others. He left the stage in 1837, having acquired a considerable fortune.

LISTON, ROBERT, a celebrated surgeon, was b. at Ecclesmachan, in the county of Linlithgow, in 1794, and was the son of the rev. Henry Liston, the minister of the parish. After studying anatomy under Barclay in Edinburgh, and following the usual course of medical study in that city, he proceeded to London in 1816, where he attended the surgical practice of the Blizards at the London hospital, and of Abernethy at St. Bartholomew's. After becoming a member of the royal college of surgeons of London, he returned to Edinburgh, and in 1818 was elected a fellow of the royal college of surgeons of that city.

Liston now commenced his career as a lecturer on anatomy and surgery, and soon became remarkable for his boldness and skill as an operator. In consequence of his performing many successful operations on patients who had been discharged as incurable by the surgeons of the Edinburgh infirmary, he was requested by the managers to refuse his assistance to any person who had been a patient in that institution, and to abstain from visiting the wards. He naturally declined to accede to these extraordinary propositions, and in consequence was expelled, and never entered again its wards, until in 1827 he was elected one of its surgeons. His surgical skill, and the rapidity with which his operations were performed, soon acquired for him a European reputation; and in 1835 he accepted the invitation of the council of University college to fill the chair of clinical surgery. He soon acquired a large London practice; in 1840 he was elected a ́member of the council of the college of surgeons; and in 1846 he became one of the board of examiners. In the very climax of his fame, and apparently in the enjoyment of vigorous health, he was struck down by disease, and died Dec. 7, 1847.

His most important works are his Elements of Surgery, which appeared in 1831, and his Practical Surgery, which appeared in 1837, and has gone through four editions. His uncontrollable temper, and the coarseness of language in which he frequently indulged, involved him in various quarrels with his professional brethren; yet, notwithstanding these defects, he always succeeded in obtaining the regard and esteem of his pupils.

LISZT, FRANZ, pianist, was b. at Raiding, in Hungary, Oct. 22, 1811. His father, a functionary employed on the estates of prince Esterhazy, was himself possessed of some musical skill, and carefully cultivated the wonderful talent which Liszt showed even in his infancy. In his ninth year, the child played publicly at Presburg, and excited universal astonishment. By the assistance of two Hungarian noblemen-counts Amadi and Sapary-Liszt was sent to Vienna, and placed under the instruction of Czerny and Salieri. He studied assiduously for eighteen months, after which he gave concerts in Vienna, Munich, and other places, with brilliant success. In 1823 he proceeded with his father to France, intending to complete his musical education at the conservatoire; but he was refused admission on account of his being a foreigner; nevertheless, his genius made a way for itself. He played before the duke of Orleans, and very soon the clever, daring boy became the favorite of all Paris. Artists, scholars, high personages, ladies-all paid homage to his marvelous gift, and it was only owing to his father's

strict supervision that young Liszt was not entirely spoiled. In the course of the next three years, he visited England thrice, and was warmly received. In 1827 his father died at Boulogne, and Liszt became his own master at the age of sixteen. For some years after this, his life sufficiently proved that he had become independent too soon. Alternations of dissipation and religious mysticism induced his admirers to fear that his artistic course would end in disastrous failure. Fortunately, he heard the famous violinist, Paganini, in 1831, and was seized with a sudden ambition to become the Paganini of the piano; and one may say that on the whole he has succeeded. Up till 1847 his career was a perpetual series of triumphs in all the capitals of Europe. He then grew tired of his itinerant life, and became leader of the court concerts and operas at Weimar. In 1865 he took sacred orders and became a monk, in the chapel of the Vatican, Rome; and in 1871 returned to his native country, which granted him a pension of £600 a year. In 1875 he was named director of the Hungarian academy of music. Liszt has also been an industrious and original contributor to musical literature.

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LITANY (Gr. litaneia, a supplication), a word the specific meaning of which has varied considerably at different times, but which means in general a solemn act of supplication addressed with the object of averting the divine anger, and especially on occasions of public calamity. Through all the varieties of form which litanies have assumed, one characteristic has always been maintained-viz., that the prayer alternates between the priest or other minister, who announces the object of each petition, and the congregation, who reply in a common supplicatory form, the most usual of which was the well-known "Kyrie eleison!" (Lord, have mercy!) In one procession which Mabillon describes, this prayer, alternating with Christe eleison," was repeated 300 times; and in the capitularies of Charlemagne, it is ordered that the "Kyrie eleison" shall be sung by the men, the women answering "Christe eleison." From the 4th c. downwards, the use of litanies was general. The Antiphonary of St. Gregory the great contains several. In the Roman Catholic church three litanies are especially in use-the "litany of the saints" (which is the most ancient), the "litany of the name of Jesus," and the "litany of Our Lady of Loretto." Of these, the first alone has a place in the public service-books of the church, on the rogation-days, in the ordination service, the service for the consecration of churches, the consecration of cemeteries, and many other offices. Although called by the name of litany of the saints, the opening and closing petitions, and indeed the greater part of the litany, consist of prayers addressed directly to God; and the prayers to the saints are not for their help, but for their intercession on behalf of the worshipers. The litany of Jesus consists of a number of addresses to our Lord under his various relations to men, in connection with the several details of his passion, and of adjurations of him through the memory of what he has done and suffered for the salvation of mankind. The date of this form of prayer is uncertain, but it is referred, with much probability, to the time of St. Bernardino of Siena, in the 15th century. The litany of Loretto (see LORETTO) resembles both the above-named litanies in its opening addresses to the holy Trinity, and in its closing petitions to the "Lamb of God, who taketh away the sins of the world;" but the main body of the petitions are addressed to the Virgin Mary under various titles, some taken from the Scriptures, some from the language of the fathers, some from the mystic writers of the medieval church. Neither this litany nor that of Jesus has ever formed part of any of the ritual or liturgical offices of the Catholic church, but there can be no doubt that both have in various ways received the sanction of the highest authorities of the Roman church.

In the prayer-book of the English church the litany is retained, but although it partakes of ancient forms, it differs from that of the Roman church, and contains no invocation of the Virgin or the saints. It is divided into four parts-invocations, deprecations, intercessions, and supplications, in which are preserved the old form of alternate prayer and response. It is no longer a distinct service, but, when used, forms part of the morning prayer.

LITCH'FIELD, a co. of Connecticut, forming its n.w. corner, and bounded n. by Massachusetts and w. by the state of New York; intersected by the IIousatonic, Farmington, and Naugatuck rivers, and by the Housatonic, Naugatuck, and Connecticut Western railroads; about 900 sq.m.; pop. in '80, 52,043, of whom 44,609 were of American birth. The surface is hilly, and extensively covered with forests. The soil is for the most part fertile; hay, butter, cheese, tobacco, cattle, oats, and corn being the staple productions. The quantity of hay and butter produced in this county in 1870 exceeded that of the same articles in any other county of the state. The production of staples in 1870 was: 6,822 bush. of wheat, 50,444 of rye, 236,900 of corn, 257.606 of oats, 27.561 of buckwheat, 319,497 of potatoes, 1,048,569 lbs. of tobacco, 51,759 of wool, 1,617.850 of butter, 1,307,396 of cheese, and 109,415 tons of hay. There were in the county at the same time 6,076 horses, 22,514 milch cows, 6.482 working oxen, 17,477 other cattle, 17,824 sheep, and 7,232 swine. Water-power is abundant, and there is in the county a great variety of manufactures, including such articles as agricultural implements, brass and brass-ware, pins, carriages, cotton goods, cutlery and edge-tools, hardware, hats and caps, iron and machinery, needles, paper, plated ware, silk goods, tin, copper and sheet-iron ware, woolen and worsted goods, leather, flour, and lumber. Capital, Litchfield.