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6. Climate and Soil. The seasons are here divided into the wet and the dry, and, as there is little variety of surface, a high temperature prevails throughout the country during the whole year. The soil is fertile, producing coffee, cotton, sugar, cocoa, indigo, cassava, plantains, and various medicinal plants and edible roots. The vegetation is characterized by great vigor and freshness, and such is the nutritious quality of the vegetable food here used, compared with that of the cereal grains of the temperate climates, that a much smaller extent of ground is able to maintain a given number of persons.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. Divisions. Venezuela is divided into 4 departments, which are subdivided into 12 provinces.

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2. Towns. The capital is Caraccas, which, before it was ravaged by an earthquake, in 1812, contained 45,000 inhabitants. It is now much reduced, but is the centre of an extensive commerce. Its situation is pleasant, and being elevated, it enjoys a perpetual spring. The population at present does not exceed 20,000. La Guayra, its port, has a poor harbor, and is extremely unhealthy. It contains about 6,000 inhabitants.

Maracaybo, on the gulf of the same name, with 20,000 inhabitants; Puerto Cabello, with a fine harbor, strong military works, and 3,000 inhabitants; Valencia, a pleasant town, with a delightful climate, and 15,000 inhabitants; Barcelona, a great mart for the smuggling trade with the English islands, with a population of 5,000; and Cumana, which has much declined, but still contains about 10,000 inhabitants, are commercial places on the northern coast.

In the interior, Varinas and Angostura, with 3,000 inhabitants each, are the principal towns. Merida, with 5,000 inhabitants, and Coro, with 4,000, are the other most important towns. It was in this region, that report placed the fabulous El Dorado, the Golden Kingdom of Manoa, which was the object of so many expeditions in the 16th century. Here, it was asserted, were more splendid cities and greater abundance of gold than even the wealthy Peru could boast, and, as late as 1780, a large party of Spaniards perished in search of this golden realm. 3. Inhabitants. The whole country is thinly inhabited, and the greater portion is occupied by Indians, the whites being only about 220,000, and the blacks, 60,000. Many of what are called the wild Indians or Indios bravos, dwell in villages, and raise plantains, cassava, and cotton. The civilized Indians are those among whom the Spaniards have established missions, and introduced Christianity. They are indolent, peaceful, and ignorant. The population may in general be divided into 3 classes, corresponding to the 3 great natural divisions of the country. Along the shore, in the valleys, and on the mountains, agriculture and commerce are pursued, and here the whites are most numerous. In the great plains, the inhabitants or llaneros, as they are called, lead a pastoral life, raising large flocks and herds, and keeping great numbers of horses, all of which abound in these natural pastures. These are chiefly Indians and mixed races. In the woody and mountainous regions of the south, beyond the Orinoco, are tribes of hunters, many of whom are at perpetual war with each other, and have all the characteristics of savages. Of the native Indian tribes in Venezuela, the Caribbees are the ruling people. No nation is stamped with a deeper brand of ferocity, the very name, converted into cannibals, being applied to signify eaters of human flesh. The charge, however, appears to have been exaggerated by the Spaniards, who met with a most fierce resistance, and sought to justify their own atrocities by this imputation. They were long considered extinct, but they are now known to be numerous on the Orinoco. They are a fine, tall race, and they shave a great part of the forehead, wearing only a tuft on the crown. They have dark, intelligent eyes, a gravity of manner, and an expression of sadness and even severity in their features. They still retain the pride of a conquering people, who, before the arrival of the Spaniards, had driven before them all the native tribes of that region, and in many points of their history and present condition, they remind us of the Iroquois of our own wilds. They are now completely subject to the missionaries; but they still practise the barbarous custom of raising the flesh along the legs and thighs. They are free, however, from the equally barbarous practice of flattening the head by compression, which is general among the tribes on the Oronoco.

4. Government. Since the separation of Venezuela from New Grenada, a new constitution has been adopted, resembling that of the latter.

CHAPTER LX. REPUBLIC OF THE EQUATOR.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. Extent and Population. The Republic of the Equator (Ecuador) is bounded on the N. by New Grenada and Venezuela; E. by the empire of Brazil; S. by Peru; and W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from 20 N. to 6° 30′ S. lat., and from 65° to 81° W. long., having an area of 325,000 square miles, with a population of 650,000 souls.

2. Mountains. The western part of the State is traversed from south to north by a chain of the Andes, forming a double ridge of colossal summits, the valley between which constitutes an elevated table-land, from 25 to 50 miles in width, and from 9,000 to 9,500 feet in height. The principal summits projecting above this great plateau, are Chimborazo, 21,730 feet high, Cayambe Urcu, 19,600, and the volcanoes of Antisana, 19,400, Cotopaxi, 19,000, and Pichincha, 16,000 feet high. Above the height of 16,750 feet these mountains are covered with perpetual snow. Chimborazo has been ascended to the height of 19,800 feet, probably the highest point on the surface of the globe ever trodden by the foot of man; the air is here so much rarified that blood issued from the eyes, lips, and gums of the visiters.

3. Rivers. The whole of the eastern part of the State is traversed by the great river Maranon or Amazon, which forms part of the southern boundary of the Republic. It receives the Napo, the Putumayo or Ysa, and the Tigre from the north, and the Huallaga, the Ucayali, and the Javari, from the south, within the limits of the Republic. The other most important river is the Guayaquil, which is navigable for the largest vessels to the distance of 40 miles from the sea, and empties itself into the fine bay of the same name.

4. Minerals. Ecuador is less rich in the precious metals than the neighboring countries. There are, however, mines of gold and silver, and a few are still worked. Lead, quicksilver, and copper, also occur in some places, and in others sulphur is prepared in considerable quantities. Topazes, emeralds, rock crystals, and fine marble are found.

5. Climate and Face of the Country. Although this country lies directly under the equator, the great elevation of the central valley, and of the western table-land renders the climate of those sections mild and temperate. In the low country along the coast the heat is excessive, and the climate is dangerous to foreigners. The productions resemble those of New Grenada. In some parts of the low country the air swarms with mosquitoes and other flies still more tormenting the ground teems with snakes, centipedes, and other reptiles, whose bite causes fever and inflammation. There is here a chameleon, whose scratch is believed to be mortal, a belief which seems chimerical, but which greatly harasses the citizens. The ants cannot be prevented from filling even the dishes, and sometimes when a tart is cut up, they are seen runring off in all directions leaving the interior void. The shores are crowded with caymans and alligators, whose numbers cannot be kept within any tolerable limits. But the valley and tableland of the interior present a different scene, almost realizing in soil and climate, the fabled glories of the golden age. The climate is an eternal spring, at once benign and equal, and even during the 4 rainy months, the mornings and evenings are clear and beautiful. Vegetation never ceases; the country is called the evergreen Quito; the trees and meadows are crowned with a perpetual verdure. The inhabitant of our wintry clime sees with astonishment the plough and the sickle at once in activity; herbs of the same species, here fading with age, there just beginning to bud; one flower drooping and its sister unfolding its beauties to the sun. Standing on an eminence, the spectator views the tints of spring, summer, autumn, all blended, while above these verdant hills and flowery vales, rise the lofty cones of the Andes clad in eternal snows, or frowning with naked rocks.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. Divisions. The territory of the Republic is divided into 3 departments, which are subdivided into 8 provinces.

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2. Towns. Quito, the capital of The Equator, is built on an elevated plain, on the eastern

Earthquake in Quito.

slope of the western chain of the Andes, at an elevation of 9,600 feet. At this elevation the climate is such that vegetation never ceases. Around the city are seen 11 colossal summits, covered with perpetual snow, and reaching the height of from 16,000 to 21,000 feet. Several of these are volcanoes, and the city is so often visited by earthquakes, that the buildings are, like those of Bogota, low, but solid. The episcopal palace, the government house, and the cathedral, with numerous convents and churches, are the most remarkable public edifices.

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The university of Quito has enjoyed great celebrity in South America. The streets of the city are irregular and crooked, and so uneven as not to be adapted to carriages. Population, 70,000. Guayaquil is distinguished for the excellence of its harbor, and the extent of its commerce. The government has a navy-yard here, and ship-building is extensively carried on. Population, 22,000. About 170 leagues west of the coast is the fine group of the Galapagos (Tortoise) Islands, deriving their name from the abundance of a gigantic species of land tortoise, which Dr. Harlan has called the Testudo elephantopus, or elephant tortoise. The islands enjoy a delightful climate and a fertile soil, and have been occupied by a colony from Guayaquil. Riobamba, with 20,000 inhabitants, Ibarra, with 10,000, and Latacunga, with 17,000, are among the other most important towns. Cuenca, situated at an elevation of more than 8,000 feet above the level of the sea, contains a college, a Jesuit's house, and an episcopal palace. The inhabitants are chiefly employed in the manufacture of cotton goods, hats, and confectionary. Population, 20,000.

3. History, Inhabitants. This State formerly constituted the Spanish Presidency of Quito, which was dependent upon the viceroyalty of New Grenada. But a small proportion of the inhabitants are whites, the Indians and mixed breeds composing the bulk of the population. The civilized part of the population is confined to the central valley and the western coast, the vast tracts to the east of the mountains being occupied by independent and hostile tribes of savages. The aborigines belonged to the Peruvian family, and numerous remains of their architectural industry and skill are still visible. In 1809 the inhabitants of Quito deposed the Spanish President, and, after a long struggle, the Spanish authority was completely overthrown by the splendid victory of Pichincha in 1822, soon after which Quito was united with Colombia. This union was dissolved in 1830, and Quito formed an independent republic.

CHAPTER LXI. PERU.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

1. Boundaries. Peru is bounded N. by The Equator; E. by Brazil; S. by Bolivia and the Pacific Ocean, and W. by the Pacific Ocean. It extends from 30 to 220 S. lat, and from 67° to 82° W. long., having an area of 500,000 square miles, with a population of 1,800,000.

2. Mountains. Several chains of the Andes traverse Peru from south to north. The principal chain lies nearly parallel to the coast, and contains the loftiest summits, among which is the volcano of Arequipa, 17,750 feet high. Two other chains of less elevation separate the waters of the Tunguragua from those of the Huallaga, and those of the latter from the confluents of the Paro.

3. Rivers. The only considerable rivers of Peru are the Tunguragua, the Paro or Ucayali, and some other tributaries of the Amazon, which descend the eastern declivities of the Andes.

Mountains of Peru.

4. Lake. Lake Titicaca, the largest lake in South America, is 240 miles in circuit, and 400 feet deep. Its waters are fresh, and it is remarkable for the great elevation of its bed, which is about 13,500 feet above the sea.

5. Coast. The nature of the coast on the Pacific Ocean is by no means favorable to navigation, and affords no harbor except Callao, which admits the larger merchant vessels. There is also on every part of the shore such a tremendous surf, caused by the uninterrupted swell from the sea, that no communication can be had with the land by boats of the common construction. The natives, however, have a contrivance called balsa, consisting of 2 seal skins, lashed together and covered with a sort of platform, on which sits the pilot of this strange craft. Being blown up by the breath of the navigator, these balsas are so buoyant, as to pass the most terrific breakers in safety.

6. Face of the Country. Peru consists of 3 distinct regions, differing in regard to surface, soil, and climate. Between the mountains and the sea, a narrow strip of sandy plain extends along the whole coast, with extensive intervals in which no traces of vegetation appear. In this sterile tract, varying in breadth from 30 to 100 miles, no rain ever falls, but the dews are heavy and uniform; thunder and lightning are unknown, and there is little variation of temperature, the heat being constant, but seldom intense. Here are produced the tropical plants, sugar-cane, cocoa, plantains, coffee, &c. The next division is the mountainous region, which, commencing at the termination of the sandy district with hills of moderate elevation, rises gradually to the loftiest summits. Here, as in Mexico and New Grenada, the traveler ascends through successive layers of climate, from regions of perpetual summer to those of eternal snows. The valleys and sides of the mountains are covered with impenetrable forests of gigantic trees, overrun with luxuriant creeping or parasitical plants. This region spreads out into an extensive table-land, which, stretching far to the east and south, has an elevation of from 4,000 to 9,000 feet. Much of the soil in this region is fertile, and the climate of the tableland is mild and temperate. To the east of the mountains, in the northeastern part, begins the great plain of the Amazon, in which the heat is excessive and the climate moist and unhealthy. Like the llanos of Venezuela, this great level is intersected by forests along the banks of the rivers, which break up its surface into separate grassy plains, here called pampas.

7. Vegetable Productions. Cotton is found in great abundance, in a wild state, in the Montana Real, on the Guallaga, and on the banks of the Maranon. Flax is common, but the Indians leave the stems to perish, and make a kind of beer of the seeds. In the southern parts, the cacao tree is very abundant. A species of cochineal, and coffee of an indifferent quality, abound in some districts. The Peruvian pimento is excessively strong, and there is some cinnamon stronger than that of Ceylon, though not so valuable. Many herbs, and a great variety of aromatic balsams, oils, and gums distilled from the trees are produced here. In the description of Peru, Estalla enumerates the cedar, the olive, the wild orange, the incorruptible algorob, the palm, the willow, and many other trees. On the coast and western slopes of the Andes, are produced the cabbage-palm, the cocoa-nut, the chocolate-nut, the cotton-shrub, the pine-apple, turmeric, plantain and sugar-cane. The large flowered jessamine, and datura arborea diffuse their evening fragrance round the vicinity of Lima, and form beautiful ornaments when braided in the hair of the women. No less than 24 species of pepper, and 5 or 6 of capsicum are considered natives of Peru. Tobacco and jalap abound in the groves at the foot of the Andes. Immense forests of acacias and mangoes, brooms and ferns in prodigious variety, tall aloes and other succulent plants, clothe the maritime plains and those on the east of the Andes. The ferula, or gigantic fennel, grows to a surprising size. The chief shrubs on the uplands of the Andes are the different species of cinchonas, or the salutary Peruvian bark. The caoutchouc, or common elastic gum, is procurred from the inspissated juice of a variety of different vegetables.

8. Minerals. The mountains of Peru abound in metallic wealth. They are interspersed

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with veins of gold, and with veins of silver ore, in which pieces of pure silver, solid copper, and lead ore occur, frequently intermixed with white silver ore, and virgin silver in threads. In many parts are rich veins of gold ore in quartz, and gold is also obtained by washing the mud found in the beds of the rivers. The ores are extremely rich, yielding from 5 to 50 pounds of silver for every hundred weight of ore. A large number of the silver mines are neglected. This is owing to their being inundated by water, which has gradually gained on them, so as to completely choke them. The Peruvian gold partly comes from the districts of Pataz and Huailas, where it is extracted from veins of quartz traversing primitive rocks, and partly from lavaderos, or washing grounds, established on the banks of the Maranon, in the district of Chachapoyas. Nearly the whole silver is extracted from the great mines of Lauricocha, (commonly called the mines of Pasco and Cerro de Bombon,) Gualgayoc or Chota and Huantajaya. The mines of Lauricocha were discovered in 1630, by an Indian shepherd; and though very badly wrought, they annually furnish near 2,500,000 dollars. The mines of Gualgayoc were only discovered in 1771, by an European Spaniard. From 1774 to 1802 they furnished the provincial treasury with an annual income of about 130,000 pounds sterling. The mines of Huantajaya, surrounded with beds of rock-salt, are celebrated for the great masses of native silver which they contain. The value of the annual produce of these mines is from 595,000 to 680,000 dollars. These mines are near the shore, in the district of Arica. In 1758 and 1789, 2 masses of native silver were found in 2 of its mines, the one weighing 800 pounds and the other 200 pounds. Humboldt calculates the mean produce of the gold and silver at 6,000,000 dollars annually. He however adopts 5,300,000 as the mean annual term of registered gold and silver in Peru; a sum which does not amount to one-fourth of the mineral produce of Mexico, the annual average of which is 23,000,000 dollars. To this sum of Peruvian gold and silver must be added the fraudulent exportation of the silver, or what is denominated unregistered produce, on which no duty has been paid. This was estimated at 940,000 dollars; making the whole amount of gold and silver, registered and smuggled, 6,240,000 dollars.* Peru is the only part of Spanish America where dance; and here it is met with in various districts. lica is situated in the mountain of Santa Barbara.

mercury is found in considerable abunThe famous mercury mine of GuancaveThe bottom of this mine is 13,805 feet

above the level of the sea; so that the miners work in a point 1,640 feet higher than the summit of the peak of Teneriffe. The mercury in the environs of Guancavelica, is found in two different forms, in beds and in veins. The great mine is divided into 3 stories, and it is estimated that 50 quintals of tolerably rich mineral yield, by distillation, from 18 to 12 pounds of mercury. For the last 16 years, the metalliferous bed of the great mine of Santa Barbara has been completely abandoned, owing to the falling in of the uppermost of the 3 stories of the mine. The other minerals are numerous. White granite, basalt of a brown color, in beautiful square columns, and rock salt of various colors, are found in several parts of the country. What is denominated the stone of the Incas, is found in different parts of the Andes, being a compact marcasite, capable of a high polish.

There are many obstacles to successful mining in Peru. One great obstruction is the ignorance of the miners in the science of amalgamation. Another, is the comparative want of capital; the speculator being generally a person in necessitous circumstances, who is obliged to borrow money on very exorbitant interest, to enable him to commence his works, and to sell the produce of his mines at a great loss, in order to carry them on. The labor of the mines is chiefly carried on by the Mestizoes and Indians, as they only are able to stand the fatigue and unwholesomeness of the employment.

1. Divisions.

POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Peru is now divided into 7 intendencies: Lima, Tarma, Arequipa, Cuzco, Guamanga, Truxillo, and Guancavelica.

Lima, the capital of Peru, situated in the valley of Rimac, was founded by Pizarro, in 1534, and by him denominated Los Reyes, or the City of the Kings. Its situation is

The mining district of Puno, on the western borders of the Titicaca lake, seems to have escaped the notice of the indefatigable Humboldt. The mines in this region were once astonishingly productive, and though abandoned since the commencement of the present century, are

considered among the most valuable in Peru, and as possessing a combination of advantages rarely to be found in mining speculations. In its geological disposition and metallic minerals, this district presents a great resemblance to the rich mines of Mexico

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