The Jeffersonian Policies: EDWARD CHANNING, The Jeffersonian System (Am. Nation), chaps. i-xvii; History of the United States, Vol. IV, chaps. ixxiii; R. G. THWAITES (ed.), Original Journal of the Lewis and Clark Expedition; MCMASTER, Vols. II, III; ADAMS, Vols. I-IV; HART, Vol. III, Nos. 106, 109, 115; AVERY, Vol. VII, chaps. xv-xx; F. A. OGG, The Opening of the Mississippi, chaps. x-xiv; W. F. MCCALEB, The Aaron Burr Conspiracy; biographies of Jefferson by PAUL LEICESTER FORD, J. T. Morse, Jr., H. C. MerWIN, and D. S. MUZZEY.

The War of 1812: CHANNING, The Jeffersonian System, chaps. xviii-xx; History of the United States, Vol. IV, chaps. xiii-xx; K. C. BABCOCK, The Rise of American Nationality (Am. Nation), chaps. i-xi; HART, Vol. III, Nos. 116-129; Cambridge Modern History, Vol. VII, chap. x; A. T. MAHAN, The War of 1812; RALPH D. PAINE, The Old Merchant Marine (Chronicles, Vol. XXXVI), chaps. vi, vii; The Fight for a Free Sea (Chronicles, Vol. XVII); THEODORE ROOSEVELT, The Naval War of 1812; CARL SCHURZ, Henry Clay (American Statesmen Series).

TOPICS FOR SPECIAL REPORTS

I. The Condition of the Country at the Inauguration of Washington: HART, Vol. III, Nos. 10-36; MCMASTER, Vol. I, pp. 1-101; Vol. II, pp. 1–24; BASSETT, pp. 163-177; CHANNING, History of the United States, Vol. IV, pp. 1-27; JUSTIN WINSOR, The Westward Movement, pp. 398–414.

2. The Jay Treaty: WINSOR, The Westward Movement, pp. 462–484; Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. VII, pp. 463-471; GEORGE PELLEW, John Jay (Am. Statesmen), chaps. x, xi; HART, Vol. III, No. 97; Bassett, pp. 125-135; MOORE, pp. 201–208; WILLIAM MACDONALD, Select Documents, No. 14 (for text of treaty).

3. The French War of 1798-1799: MCMASTER, Vol. II, pp. 370-388, 428434; F. A. WALKER, The Making of the Nation, pp. 137-143; WINSOR, Narrative and Critical History of America, Vol. VII, pp. 361–368; A. J. WOODBURN, American Political History, Vol. I, pp. 162-179.

4. The Lewis and Clark Expedition: ROOSEVELT, The Winning of the West, Vol. IV, pp. 308-328; HART, Vol. III, No. 115; CHANNING, The Jeffersonian System, pp. 86-99; THWAITES, Rocky Mountain Exploration, pp. 92-187. 5. The War Hawks in the Twelfth Congress: McMASTER, Vol. III, pp. 426-458; WALKER, pp. 220–227; BABCOCK, pp. 50-63; ADAMS, Vol. VII, pp. 113-175; SCHURZ, Vol. I, chap. v; JAMES SCHOULER, History of the United States, Vol. II, pp. 334-356.

6. The Louisiana Purchase: MCMASTER, Vol. II, pp. 620-635; CHANNING, The Jeffersonian System, pp. 47-72; History of the United States, Vol. V, pp. 298-335; Adams, Vol. II, pp. 116-134; WILLIAM M. SLOANE, in the American Historical Review, Vol. IV, pp. 439 ff.; ROOSEVELT, Vol. IV, pp. 258-282; HART, Foundations of American Foreign Policy, pp. 185-209; MACDONALD, No. 24 (for text of treaty).

PART IV. NATIONAL VERSUS

SECTIONAL INTERESTS

CHAPTER VIII

THE GROWTH OF A NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS

A NEW AMERICAN SPIRIT

248. The Completion of our Independence. The close of the second war with England (1815) marks an epoch in American history. During the quarter of a century which elapsed between the inauguration of George Washington and the conclusion of the treaty at Ghent, the United States was very largely influenced by European politics. Our independence was acknowledged but not respected. Neither the French republic nor the English monarchy accorded us the courtesies due to a sister power; neither Napoleon nor the ministers of George III heeded our protests against the violation of a neutral nation's rights. Foreign wars and rumors of war, treaties, protests, embassies, absorbed the energies of the administration at Washington. Many of our greatest statesmen were serving their country in foreign capitals. The eyes of our people were turned toward the Atlantic to welcome our swift packets bringing news from Paris, London, and Madrid. But with the "universal peace" of 1815 all this was changed. We turned our back on Europe and faced the problems of our own growing land. The development of the boundless resources of the United States invited the common effort of all sections of our country.

249. Hindrances to Western Development Removed. Many thousand pioneers had crossed the Alleghenies to the rich valleys of the Ohio and the Tennessee before the War of 1812, but the supply of both men and capital was too meager to develop the resources of the whole eastern basin of the Mississippi. The Indians, encouraged by England on the north and by Spain on the south, were a constant

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source of danger. Lack of roads was so serious a handicap that it was not profitable to raise wheat far from the banks of navigable rivers. The barrier of the Alleghenies made transportation between the Ohio valley and the seaboard so expensive that the wagon driver got the lion's share both of the money for which the Western farmer sold his wheat in Virginia and of the money which he paid for his plow in Ohio. If the pioneer floated his cargo of wheat, pork, or tobacco down the Mississippi to New Orleans in a flatboat, it was

more profitable to sell boat and all there and return home on horseback than to spend three months battling his way up against the current. But during the decade 1810-1820 these difficulties in the way of the development of the West were rapidly removed. William Henry Harrison by his victories over Tecumseh's braves at Tippecanoe Creek in Indiana territory (1811), and Andrew Jackson by his pacification of the Creeks and Seminoles in Florida (1813-1818), put an end to the danger from the Indians on our frontiers. În 1811 the steamboat (which many years of experiment by Fitch and Fulton, on the Delaware, the Seine, and the Hudson, had brought to efficiency) made its first appearance on the Ohio River. Henceforth the journey from Louisville to New Orleans and back could be made inside of a month, and the products of the Gulf region could be brought to the Northwest by the return voyage.

250. Renewed Westward Emigration. The interruption of our foreign commerce by embargo, nonintercourse, and war had sent thousands of families westward across the mountains, where better farm land could be bought from the government at two dollars an acre, with liberal credit, than could be had for ten times that price in cash on the seaboard. Moreover, a stream of immigrants of the hardy northern stocks of Europe began to pour into our country after the War of 1812, to swell the westward march to the farm

lands of the Ohio valley. In the single year 1817, 22,000 Irish and Germans came over. A ceaseless procession passed along the Mohawk valley and over the mountain roads of Pennsylvania and Virginia. "The old America seems to be breaking up and moving westward," wrote an Englishman who migrated to Illinois in 1817. A gatekeeper on a Pennsylvania turnpike counted over 500 wagons with 3000 emigrants passing in a single month.

251. Extension of the Cotton Fields to the Mississippi. At the same time the cotton planters of the South were moving from the Carolinas and Georgia into the fertile Mississippi territory which the campaigns of Andrew Jackson had freed from the terror of the savage. The invention of machinery in England for the spinning and weaving of cotton had increased the demand for that article beyond the power of the planters to satisfy, even with the enormous increase of production effected by Eli Whitney's invention of the cotton

gin' in 1793. How eagerly the planters turned to the virgin soil along the Gulf of Mexico may be seen from the following figures. In 1810 less than 5,000,000 pounds of cotton were grown west of the Alleghenies, out of a total crop of 80,000,000 pounds; ten years later the new Western states (Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama) produced 60,000,000 pounds out of a total crop of 177,000,000 pounds; and five years later still, these same states raised over 150,000,000 pounds, or about one half the entire crop of the country.

252. Growth of the New West. With the attractions of cheap and fertile farm lands in the Northwest and virgin cotton soil in the Southwest, the trans-Allegheny country far outstripped the seaboard states in growth of population. While the census of 1820 showed an increase of only 35 per cent in the New England States, and 92 per cent in the Middle Atlantic States, over the population at the beginning of the nineteenth century, the western commonwealths of Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee increased 320 per cent in the same period. Six new Western states were added to the Union in the decade following the outbreak of the second war with England: Louisiana (1812), Indiana (1816), Mississippi (1817), Illinois (1818), Alabama (1819), Missouri (1821),-more than had been admitted since the formation of our government, and more than were to be admitted until the eve of the Civil War. The new West was rapidly coming to be a power to be reckoned with in national politics. By the apportionment of 1820, 47 of the 213 congressmen and 18 of the 48 senators came from beyond the Alleghenies,the land which a generation before was, in the language of Daniel Webster, "a fresh, untouched, unbounded, magnificent wilderness."

253. The West calls for National Aid. The settlers of the new West had abundant courage but little capital. In order to connect their rapidly developing region with the Atlantic coast, that they might exchange their farm products for the manufactures of the eastern factories and the imports from the Old World, great outlays of money for roads and canals were needed. The national government

1 The cotton gin (engine) was a machine for separating the cotton seed from the fiber. A man could clean about 300 pounds of cotton a day with the gin as against a single pound by hand. Whitney's invention was one of the most fateful in history, for it made the production of cotton so profitable that the slave system was fixed on the South. Less than 200,000 pounds of cotton were exported in 1791, but in 1807, on the eve of the embargo, the exports reached 63,000,000 pounds.