which others would have muttered below their breaths. These two qualiities taken together gave him even intellectually a certain kind of boldness, in which the writers of our day are singularly deficient. He was, so to speak, a man who could always utter what he had to say in a good, ringing, manly tone. He was certainly not a great man, yet he had about him a species of intellectual bigness. His work was like himself. His 'History of Civilization' is, to use a child's expression, a great big book. It was in every way too big for use, and reminds us of Robinson Crusoe's huge boat, which was too clumsy to be removed from its place, which never was of any use to its maker or any one else, but remained high and dry upon the land, a monument of a waste of labor and of dauntless energy.

DR.

RAY ON INSANITY.*

R. RAY is well known as by far the ablest advocate, if not the in ventor, of the new doctrines of criminal responsibility as affected by insanity and insane delusion, which have obtained so widely of late years, and his views are worthy of attention, not only by reason of their undoubted honesty, and the ability with which they are supported, but because the author, to his own confusion, as we think, assumes the functions not only of a physician but of a lawyer and judge, and sharply, not to say ferociously, criticises the legal theories generally applied to cases in which insanity is alleged as an excuse for crime. His last book, in which the author carries his peculiar views to even a broader application than in his Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity,' is principally made up of papers printed at different times in the American Journal of Insanity, the American Law Review, and other journals, and it is for this reason, perhaps, that we notice in it certain contradictions and inconsistencies of statement which might not have found place in a more homogeneous work.

The papers in which Dr. Ray's peculiar opinions find strongest expression are those on "The Causes of Insanity," "Objections to Moral Insanity Considered," and "The Trial of Rogers." The first of these contains many shrewd and valuable criticisms of popular fallacies regarding the causes and beginnings of insane disease. The writer believes that the causes assigned for the existence of insanity, are often but the occasions of the development of insane tendencies which had previously remained concealed and unsuspected. He forcibly says: "Taking up the first hospital report within reach, and turning to the table of causes, I find in it hard work, fear of poverty, and jealousy, to mention no others. We shall scarcely find any warrant, I think, for believing that the incidents here named can, in the nature of things, exert a morbific influence on the brain. A poor man can have no apprehension of poverty, while, in the rich, it must be a morbid feeling of course-part and parcel of the disease of which it is alleged to be the cause. Jealousy, in process of time, gradually increasing, may become a form of mental disease; but to call it the cause of insanity is very like saying it is the cause of itself. Hard work may produce that exhaustion of the vital energies which favors the development of insanity, but directly it cannot injure the brain."

Dr. Ray, as the above passage with its context shows, takes an exclusively medical view of his subject; he regards insanity simply as a disease, generally having its roots in the patient's constitution; and clearly holds that mere eccentricity, morbid imaginations, and insanity as popularly understood, are but degrees of the same thing. Forgetting that the law can take cognizance of insanity only as manifested in overt acts, he insists that the courts shall adopt his definition of it, and shall, in all cases, accept its existence when proved as an excuse for crime, or, at least, throw the burden of proof upon those who contend that it is not such an excuse. That the adoption of such principles of criminal procedure would result in frequent subversions of justice, it needs no argument to prove.

But it is in the paper on "Objections to Moral Insanity Considered" that Dr. Ray announces his most startling theories. He begins by grossly mistaking, as it seems to us, the position of his opponents. No one, whether physician or lawyer, cares to dispute that moral insanity may exist-impossible as it is to distinguish it in practice frem moral depravity-and we suppose that every one understands by it such an aberration of the moral perception, however arising, as renders its subject unable to perceive in his own acts, or those of others, any essential quality of right and wrong. The law says that such insanity shall not disebarge its subject from the consequences of illegal acts committed under its influence, so long as reason, will, and legal knowledge remain-that is, so long as the patient is morally insane merely the reason of the rule being, that the law does not care what the criminal's own private views of right and wrong are, but has for its function the prevention of acts which the community has, for good reason, agreed to consider wrong. The Sentimentalist, believing that every man

*Contributions to Mental Pathology. By J, Ray, M.D., author of "Medical Jurisprudence of Insanity," and "Mental Hygiene." Boston: Little, Brown & Co. 1873.

should be a law unto himself, revolts at this view, and concludes that no one should be punished for acts which his own conscience, no matter how perverted, approves. Dr. Ray seeing the difficulty into which he is led, and ashamed to advocate the bald sentimental view of the matter, fortifies his position by the naked assertion, that moral insanity must, of necessity, control the will and reason, and so render its subject irresponsible. He says: "The force of these morbid impulses cannot be resisted, because it is greater than that which the intellect was designed, in the normal constitution of things, to control." That is, we are not to expect any one to control his impulses to wrong, if it seem to him right, because this would be expecting too much of human nature. If this assertion be true, and it is wholly unsupported by proof, or in our opinion by reason, all controversy is at an end. If the disease controls the will, it is intellectual insanity, not simply moral insanity, and, of course, renders its subject irresponsible.

Thus assuming that moral insanity is a perfect excuse for crime, Dr. Ray goes on to consider what evidence will prove its existence, and advances opinions more startling if not more novel than any we have met elsewhere. His theories lead directly to the result that all criminal acts are prima facie insane. In other words, the very crime of which the defendant is accused, is the best proof of the insanity alleged to excuse it. He says: "The single criminal act may sometimes be very unsatisfactory proof of insanity; but we apprehend that such cases are very infrequent. When a woman previously distinguished for every virtue takes the life of her darling child, am I obliged to stifle my instinctive convictions of her insanity merely because no other symptom of mental disease has been witnessed? In a large proportion of cases, the crowning proof of insanity is drawn chiefly from the character of some single act, the previous and subsequent manifestations of disease being too obscure and equivocal to possess much significance. Now, it is going but one step further, and that not a very long one, to regard such act as the sole proof."

After such expressions of opinion as we have quoted, we are not surpressed to find that Dr. Ray's views regarding insane delusion, so far as they can be determined from their somewhat vague expression, are equally remarkable. The rule laid down in the McNaghten case-the leading English authority on the subject-is that the existence of delusion shall relieve its subject from the consequences of acts committed under its influence, when and when only, if the delusion had been a reality, the act would have been excusable. In the famous Rogers case, Chief-Justice Shaw, of Massachusetts, adopted the same rule, adding to it the qualification that delusion may in some cases be an indication of general mental unsoundness, and, in such cases, may excuse criminal acts committed under its influence, even although the facts of the delusion, if real, would not have excused them. This rule has ever since been accepted by judges and lawyers as clear, defiject yet given, and worthy the reputation of its eminent author. Yet Dr. nite, and precise, and as perhaps the best exposition of the law on the subRay somewhat flippantly says:

"He [the Chief-Justice] hesitates and vacillates, returns again and again to qualify what he has said, or to add some condition for the purpose of enlarging or restricting the range of its application. As might be supposed, his ideas lack precision and lucid arrangement, and the reader is not always sure of his exact meaning."

It is evident from Doctor Ray's expressions on the subject, though his views are not precisely formulated, that he will be satisfied with nothing else than a rule which shall declare that delusion in all cases, on whatever subject, shall be taken as an indication of such insanity as renders its subject irresponsible. He would establish a new maxim in law-insanus in uno, insunus in omnibus—and make it embody a presumption which shall be conclusive in all cases.

We had marked for criticism many other passages in this new book, but space will not allow extended comment upon them. Yet one or two of the author's suggestions in regard to criminal practice, can hardly pass unnoticed. Dr. Ray seems to be of the opinion that the lawyers in the community are in league to break down and insult medical experts upon the witness-stand, and proposes as a simple remedy, that "the testimony of experts should be given in writing, and read to the jury without any oral examination. It would thus be deliberately prepared, its explanations well considered, and its full force and bearings clearly discerned. It would go to the jury on its own merits, no advantage being gained by the superior adroitness of counsel in embarrassing the witness and pushing his statements to a false and ridiculous conclusion." The obvious answer to this proposition is, that testimony which cannot stand the crucial test of crossexamination is generally worthless, and that such a practice would be in direct contravention of the rule of law, which requires that the accused, in criminal cases, shall be confronted with the witnesses against him.

Dr. Ray also proposes for general adoption, a rule which obtains in

the State of Maine, that, whenever insanity is alleged as a defence by the accused, "the prisoner shall be sent to the State Hospital for the Iusane, that he may be observed by the superintendent, who shall report to the court respecting his mental condition." The working of this rule in Maine, as stated by the author, seems a sufficient reason for rejecting it. It appears that of thirty persons so placed under surveillance in the last twenty-one years, twenty-four were pronounced insane, and that all of these escaped punishment. To believe that, during a long series of years, five-sixths of all the persons alleging insanity as an excuse for crime are really irresponsible, seems preposterous.

It is pleasant to be able to close this notice, by thanking the writer for the full and interesting paper upon the insanity of King George the Third, which appears to be written very carefully, and collects much interesting matter from scattered authorities, which cannot be separately consulted without the expenditure of much labor, time, and patience. It is an article in which the peculiar theories of the author find no room for expression, and is of interest alike to the physician, the lawyer, and the historical

student.

Key to North American Birds, containing a concise account of every species of living and fossil bird at present known from the continent north of the Mexican and United States boundary. Illustrated by 6 steel-plates and upwards of 250 woodcuts. By Elliott Coues, Assistant-Surgeon United States Army. (Salem: Naturalists' Agency. 1872. Large 8vo, pp. 361.) -This book will be welcomed by both the amateur and the professional ornithologist as a valuable contribution to the list of books treating of North Americau birds. While Dr. Coues has modestly called his work a "Key," it is in reality much more than the title indicates. A brief description of each species is given, but sufficiently full to enable the student to identify a specimen, while in many cases the descriptions are quite complete. The book will doubtless serve as a manual to many who find their recreation in observing and studying the habits of birds, and have not the means to purchase more costly works. For this class it is admirably adapted. The first 57 pages are devoted to an Introduction, which contains a large amount of valuable information, indispensable to the beginner, upon the anatomy and classification of birds. It gives plainly and concisely the instruction needed. The following, taken from the definition of a bird, page 1, will answer for a sample: "A bird is an air-breathing, egg-laying, warm-blooded, feathered vertebrate, with two limbs (legs) for walking, two limbs (wings) for flying or swimming, fixed lungs in a cavity communicating with other air cavities, and one outlet of genito-urinary and digestive organs," etc. Following the Introduction is an Artificial Key, which enables the student to find the genus to which his specimen belongs. Systematic Synopsis occupies nearly 300 of the 361 pages of the book. The feature of most benefit to professional ornithologists is the numerous references to other authors which Dr. Coues appends to the description of each genus. These references are not only to standard works, but refer as well to articles in the proceedings of scientific bodies and in scientific periodicals, bringing the bibliography of the subject down to the latest date. A few pages are devoted to a Synopsis of the Extinct Birds of North America, for which the author acknowledges his indebtedness to Prof. Marsh. Those who possess Dr. Coues's work, and have not the necessary means of reference, will regret that the author did not insert in tabular form the classification he has adopted, at least down to Orders. Such a table would have been a great convenience to many. Some wrong references to figures are found upon pages 50 and 51, although such errors are very few. Synopsis, we should have remarked, professes to be hardly anything more than a dry anatomical description of the several birds, and of course does not give the graphic description of habits and songs which one finds in Audubon or Nuttall. Still the most characteristic points in these respects will always be found stated briefly and forcibly; and once in a while even a bit of pleasing sentiment occurs, as the agreeable description of the greenlets, p. 119. The typographical execution of the work is every way worthy of it, and the cuts are very clear and instructive.

Authors.-Titles.

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Fine Arts.

THE RECORDS OF PRIMITIVE CIVILIZATION.

N a most interesting note on the Cesnola collection, sent to the Academy by Mr. Newton of the British Museum, we have not only the authority of one of the first living authorities in matters pertaining to classic art, for the distinct recognition of a relation in antique work here clearly shown, and of the most marked importance in an archæological art-genesis, but a strong confirmation of a theory for which I have for several years contended, and of which the famous jeweller and archæologist of Rome, Castellani, has made a direct statement-namely, of a primitive and independent Etrurian source of civilization. Mr. Newton says:

"In all the sculptures from Cyprus which can be fairly referred to the Archaic period, and which are not close imitations of the Egyptian, the type of features is very peculiar. The forehead recedes; the cheek-bones are high; the cheeks sunken; the nose, chin, and lips unnaturally pointed; the facial angle much sharper than in early art. It is singular that we must look to Etruria rather than to the Greek world for types analogous to the Cyprian. The two curious reclining figures in painted terra-cotta from Cervetri, in the Campana Collection of the Louvre, have the same receding foreheads and angular features, as may be seen by comparing the engraving of the figures in the Monum. of the Roman Inst.' vi. pl. 59 (see Brunn, 'Annali,' xxxiii. pp. 398, 399), with the figure and head from the Cesnola Collection (Revue archéol. N. S. xxii. pl. 23)."

And again:

"From the history of Cyprian sculpture, as developed in extant monuments, we may infer that art in this island passed through the same phases as in Etruria. First came an Archaic style, with a certain affinity to the Archaic Greek style, but differing from it very decidedly in the type and in many details of costume and ornament. Then succeeded a Hieratic style, through which archaic types were mechanically reproduced, and, after that, the disturbing influence of mature Greek art. It is probable that it was part of the Hellenizing policy of Evagoras to invite Greek artists to Cyprus, just as the Carian princes, ruling over a mixobarbaric population, drew Athenian art to Halicarnassus. But it should be noted that neither in Cyprus nor in Etruria does this Greek art, introduced at a late period from without, appear to have flourished except as an exotic. It gave rise to no school of Greek artists in Cyprus."

This question of the relation of Etruscan art with that of the rest of the East is one of the most dark and interesting which our study of the field offers. Castellani ('L'incivilmento primitivo ') takes the distinctly intelligible ground that the Etrurian and Pelasgic races are the same, and, in the brochure alluded to, collects many curious antique traditions which favor the theory. Indeed, a general impression seems to have obtained amongst archæologists that there was a connection between the Etruscans and the Pelasgi which cannot be traced out positively, but may be by negative indications. Mux Müller inclines to doubt if the Pelasgi were a distinct race, and refers the name to πελαιός, an archaic form of παλαιός, old, as meaning the ancient people. But in objection to this we have the distinct assertion, by one of the Greek historians, that there was, on the coast of Italy, still a tribe who spoke the Pelasgic language-at once intimating that there was a race and a language, and that that language was nearly extinct. Moreover, we have the unmistakable evidence of the records of Karnak that the Cretan Pelasgi and the Tyrrhenian Pelasgi had on more than one occasion invaded Egypt, and in one case an alliance is indicated between these two branches of the great nation and the Dorians, whom slighter but not worthless evidence makes to have been related to the Pelasgi. The Tyrrhenian Pelasgi unquestionably point to the Etruscan; and as to the Cretan Pelasgi, we are told by the Egyptian record that they settled in the Delta of the Nile, and moved into Palestine as the Philistines (Pilisti or Pilisgi of the Karnak record), and abundant tradition informs us that the Pelasgi swarmed over the whole Archipelago of the Egean, and were the earliest noted population of many of the islands even as far as Samothrace, while we find their work in the walls of nearly every ancient city site on the shores of the Ægean, the recent excavations at Troy showing its walls to be Pelasgic.

For confirmation or disproval of the traditions we have two scientific methods of examination-that by language and that by the works which have come down to us. The actuality of a Pelasgic language seems to be scarcely a matter of reasonable doubt in face of the declaration of the historian above alluded to, and the distinct recognition of the different branches of the "divine Pelasgi" by Homer and the early Greek traditions, as actual participants in the Trojan war-on both sides, since the Pelasgic

tribes settled on the coast of Asia had naturally become allied to Priam. If, then, there was an affinity between the Phoenicians and the Pelasgi, is it not more probable that the latter were the emigrant founders of the Phoenician tribe than the reverse? May we not, then, set aside for the moment all the commonly accepted theories that the Pelasgi or Etruscans were Phoenician colonists? I shall be able, I think, to show good reason why we must do so, and that all the so-called Græcc-Phoenician sites or settlements are really more likely to have been Pelasgic than Phoenician, if the two are not identical.

The argument from language is almost nothing, and the little that we can deduce is negative. We have seen that the Pelasgic language was nearly extinct in historical times, so far as the coasts accessible to Greece are concerned, but that it differed materially from Greek we may judge. The Pelasgi were evidently "the ancient people," as Müller's derivation makes them to have been called-not allied by race to the Hellenes; and, if really an earlier offshoot from the primeval stock, the language was most certainly deficient in analogy to the Hellenic. Remark here how singularly suggestive is the fact that the Etruscan language has no anslogy with any other known, nor can the inscriptions, though collated with everything hitherto discovered in ancient or modern language, be deciphered. Does not this prove a separation so ancient (if not a distinct derivation) from the other branches of the human race as to antedate all recognizable affinity, and entitle all the newcomers of the Aryan stock to call them "the old people" This single fact presents a strong argument for the identity of the two races, based on philological affinities or the reverse, and a slight confirmation by indirection may be found in the fact that the Etruscan letters are Greek, but not the most ancient form of known Greek letters, and, therefore, are presumably borrowed from Greece in the later interchange of ideas consequent on an emigration from Greece to Etruria-the Etruscans probably having no alphabet or written language when they made the acquaintance of the Hellenes. This fact at once indicates that the language was imperfectly developed, since it had not taken a literal form, and accounts for its having been dropped as a language in favor of the Greek wherever the Pelasgi came in contact with Greeks, and losing all individual existence. It also proves by implication that there could have been no connection with Egypt or Assyria in the remote periods, as letters would scarcely have failed to have found their way with the earliest intercourse, and that, therefore, the Etruscans did not come from the East; and adds another weight to the conjecture that they were Pelasgi-no other than the Etrurian Pelasgi of the records of Thothmes III.

But, in default of clearer testimony from language, we turn to that of monuments, and on this Castellani is high authority. His hypothesis is that Greece was civilized from Etruria, and, in the course of my own investigatiou, I was fortunate to hit on a curious confirmation of this theory, not to my knowledge recorded.

There is from Etruria, down through the great series of plains as you go toward Naples and thence to Brindisi, a line of Pelasgic remains, every hill-site along the flanks of the Volscian and Sabine hills showing in the substructures that peculiar polygonal masonry of which the walls of Segni are a most marked example and in excellent preservation. Traces appear in the Ionian Isles, along the coast of the Morea, and all through Crete and the Archipelago, with a culminating importance and perfection in the Argolide, where Tiryns, the reputed birthplace of Hercules, represents the first style, Mycenae the second, and Argos the third. At Mycenae is the celebrated relief of the Lions over the city gate, a piece of sculpture which shows distinctly the characteristics of an art archaic but tolerably advanced, and far superior in spirit and design to anything which Egypt or Assyria had produced long after this had been executed.* It is made in an exceedingly hard limestone, which is popularly mistaken for flint, and is as difficult to work as porphyry, and which in that climate has preserved its worked surface uninjured. I climbed up on the relief to examine it closely, and found from the undercuttings that the manner of execution had been the same as the early Etruscan intaglii-by a series of drill-holes, having the intervening stone apparently removed by attrition, and with no vestige of the use of an edged or pointed tool. With this light I commenced an examination of all the so-called Pelasgic remains on the Argolide, and found that without an exception they appeared to have been done by attrition or per

The earliest Egyptian sculpture is dated as of the 224 cent. B.C., that of Assyria in the 10th, while the building of Mycenae is put by tradition at 1300 B.C., and that of Tiryns at 1379, an exactitude of date as fabulous as the manner of building, and, like all dates of Greek mythic origin, only of slight comparative value. Thus, Tiryns was no doubt built before Mycenae, but by the same art, and on the same system of fortification; if instead of 79 years we put several centuries, we shall come nearer the progress made between the two cities, but if we add 500 years we shall not bring it back to the date of the cave tombs of Egypt, and we carry it further from the early work of Assyria: so that, reasoning from dates, we might conjecture that Assyrian art came from Pelasgi, who had, in Egypt, acquired the art of cutting stone, and who worked for the Assyrians as they had for Hellence.

i

cussior-the latter for facing the masses, and the former when a smooth surface or any ornament was wanted. The so-called Treasury of Atreus (which, by the way be it said, is precisely similar in construction to the Mamertine Prison in Rome, an Etruscan work of mythical date) is made from masses of a conglomerate split out by some unknown means, and rudely faced by rubbing together; nor here, even in the interior of the building, can the mark of cutting tools be found.

On the top of the ruins of the citadel of Argos, which shows the latest form of polygonal building-the polygonal stones laid three or four deep in courses with parallel sides-I found a stone which had, by some modern force, possibly exerted during its siege in the war of Greek independence, been overturned so that its ancient under-side was exposed, and this showed the whitish marks of facing by blows by a blunt instrument. It was evident in all the examinations I could make that the Pelasgic builders did not know the use of cutting tools for stone, yet the earliest known Egyptian work shows a perfect knowledge of stone-cutting.* If, then, civilization came from Egypt to Greece, how is it that the civilizers left the tools of their trades behind them, and that a work so far advanced in its knowledge of art as the Lions of Mycenae should have been done without cutting tools? And why, moreover, should these works, one and all, show so much resemblance to those of Etruria, and so little to those of Egypt or Assyria?

We can now see the importance of these indications, pointed out by Mr. Newton, of an Etruscan art in Cyprus, taken in connection with the numerous city walls as well as the tradition of the Pelasgi. Newton's recognition of Etruscan work where we know the Pelasgi to have been, but have no intimation that the Etruscans ever were, is an unmistakable confirmation of the theory of the identity of the people called by these two names.

If further evidence of this kind, as to the identity of the Pelasgi with the people who brought the primitive arts to Greece, is worth noting, it may be found in the close resemblance of the tombs in the island of Ægina, off the coast of Morea, to those of Etruria, which is one of the most curious and, on any other theory, unaccountable coincidences in the history of civilization. Müller opposed to my deductions the fact that the primitive building of every people which is obliged to work with a stone of the character of the limestone of which the Pelasgi made their walls, is more or less of the same polygonal type, but this is a natural and accountable coincidence. What is not accounted for is the fact that all other rude forms of polygonal work are of undressed stone, while the Pelasgic is dressed to a nicety, and fitted perfectly; but when it is a stone that permits quadrate forms, as in parts of the ruins of Mycenæ, the stones are parallelopipedons, and there is often carving, of which the Lions are the best example, and all done without the use of edge-tools. This proves a high degree of culture and civic organization, attained to in the most complete independence of the East, and makes it probable that, so far from the Etruscans and early Hellenes having borrowed the arts from the East, it was really the Pelasgi, their ancestors, who carried certain of the arts to the East; and that the Etruscan types of ornament and art-work found in Assyria were as likely to have been originally introduced by the Pelasgi as to have been carried by Phoenician vesels to Etruriamore likely, in my opinion, as the Pelasgic naval knowledge antedated that of the whole East, and probably by ages.

Castellani quotes a tradition saying that the Pelasgi-restless and wandering over the whole East without finding a secure home, building cities for uncultured and more energetic races, and then, as in Athens, being driven out of them barbarously-came to the Delphian Oracle to ask what they must do to escape their misery, and the oracle replied: "Return to your native land, Italy, and you will find rest.”

In considering this migration of the Pelasgi, we must remember that it was not like a raid of the Goths and Vandals, who swept over empires in a few years, but a process of swarming from one hive to another, building, populating as they went; and when we consider the time it must have cost to build the walls of a single city like some of those on their track, we may conjecture the ages it must have taken to go from Italy to the shores of Asia.

In a future communication, I will try to connect and systematize the traditions and authorities by which I believe that this theory can be maintained. W. J. STILLMAN.

There is an instance of polygonal masonry at Athens in the terrace-wall of the Pnyx, the antiquity of which has been disputed, as, notwithstanding its polygonal form, it is historically noted as the work of the Thirty in changing the place of the popular assemblies, so that the people might not have the sea before them at their meetings (Plutarch, Them. 19). Had the archaeologists, in weighing the question, ever recognized this trait of Pelasgic work, they would have seen at once that the Pnyx wall is unmistak ably modern, as the mark of the cutting-tool is seen in all the facing, which is of the fashion known as "rusticated"; and the work was never finished, as we see that the cutting of the stones from the rock each side of the Bema was interrupted, a part of the rock nearly detached still remaining. I think, therefore, that we may decide with Wordsworth that the present Bema is that of the Thirty, and the ancient Puyx that on the crest of the hill.

CONTENTS OF THE MARCH NUMBER.

Are we Christians? By Leslie Stephen.-Servia and Its New Prince. By Humphrey Sandwith.-The Organization of a Legal Department of Government. By James Bryce.-On the Historical Element in Shakespeare's Falstaff. By James Gairdner.-On the Causes which Operate to Create Scientific Men. By Francis Galton.-The Game Laws and the Committee of 1872. By A. H. Beesly-Rameau's Nephew. From the French of Diderot.-Critical Notices: L'Avere et l'Imposta.' By J. S. Mill.- Biographical and Critical Essays,' 'Notes of Thought, Jest and Earnest,' Memoir of a Brother,' Our New Masters,' Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada, Caliban.' By Edith Simcot.

Owing to the misunderstanding incident to the beginning of such an enterprise, the numbers have not appeared as promptly as there is every reason to hope subsequent ones will.

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O MY FRIENDS AND THE ART PUBLIC GENERALLY

Being under the necessity of making alterations to my Art Rooms at 88 Fifth Avenue, and having a Collection of Paintings entirely too numerous to properly show at any time in such small quarters, I have temporarily secured the use of the fine Gallery,

625 BROADWAY, NEAR BLEECKER STREET (The well-known old Dusseldorf Gallery), and avail myself of the opportunity to make a Public Exhibition of the largest, choicest, and most valuable Collection ever gathered by me.

The most of them were painted to my order, and many of them have never been exposed, being fresh from the easels of the artists.

They will be offered at PRIVATE SALE ONLY, and will be on view for a very short period.

To these will be added several very important works painted expressly for me by the most distinguished artists, received at various times but never publicly shown, and now kindly loaned by their respective

owners.

THE EXHIBITION

WILL OPEN ON

THURSDAY MORNING, APRIL 17, 1873. And continue each day from 9 A.M. until 9 P.M.

ADMISSION FREE.

Your early attention, good-will, and patronage is very respectfully solicited by yours most truly, SAMUEL P. AVERY.

THE

HE PERKINS SALE of Rare and Beautiful Manuscripts will take place near London, England, late in May.

BERNARD QUARITCH,

15 Piccadilly, London,

Has printed a List of all the principal articles, made after the late Mr. Henry Perkins's own notes, and has sent this List to all the leading Institutions and Book-collectors.

Commissions for this sale should be sent to Bernard Quaritch without delay.

NOTES

"The Notes contained in this volume comprise the frequent observations of ten years. They were all revised after his last visit in 1871."

Price $250, post free.
Address

PUBLISHER OF THE NATION.

tribes settled on the coast of Asia had naturally become allied to Priam. If, then, there was an affinity between the Phoenicians and the Pelasgi, is it not more probable that the latter were the emigrant founders of the Phoenician tribe than the reverse? May we not, then, set aside for the moment all the commonly accepted theories that the Pelasgi or Etruscans were Phoenician colonists? I shall be able, I think, to show good reason why we must do so, and that all the so-called Græcc-Phoenician sites or settlements are really more likely to have been Pelasgic than Phoenician, if the two are not identical.

The argument from language is almost nothing, and the little that we can deduce is negative. We have seen that the Pelasgic language was nearly extinct in historical times, so far as the coasts accessible to Greece are concerned, but that it differed materially from Greek we may judge. The Pelasgi were evidently "the ancient people," as Müller's derivation makes them to have been called-not allied by race to the Hellenes; and, if really an earlier offshoot from the primeval stock, the language was most certainly deficient in analogy to the Hellenic. Remark here how singularly suggestive is the fact that the Etruscan language has no auslogy with any other known, nor can the inscriptions, though collated with everything hitherto discovered in ancient or modern language, be deciphered. Does not this prove a separation so ancient (if not a distinct derivation) from the other branches of the human race as to antedate all recognizable affinity, and entitle all the newcomers of the Aryan stock to call them "the old people" This single fact presents a strong argument for the identity of the two races, based on philological affinities or the reverse, and a slight confirmation by indirection may be found in the fact that the Etruscan letters are Greek, but not the most aucient form of known Greek letters, and, therefore, are presumably borrowed from Greece in the later interchange of ideas consequent on an emigration from Greece to Etruria-the Etruscans probably having no alphabet or written language when they made the acquaintance of the Hellenes. This fact at once indicates that the language was imperfectly developed, since it had not taken a literal form, and accounts for its having been dropped as a language in favor of the Greek wherever the Pelasgi came in contact with Greeks, and losing all individual existence. It also proves by implication that there could have been no connection with Egypt or Assyria in the remote periods, as letters would scarcely have failed to have found their way with the earliest intercourse, and that, therefore, the Etruscans did not come from the East; and adds another weight to the conjecture that they were Pelasgi-no other than the Etrurian Pelasgi of the records of Thothmes III.

But, in default of clearer testimony from language, we turn to that of monuments, and on this Castellani is high authority. His hypothesis is that Greece was civilized from Etruria, and, in the course of my own investigation, I was fortunate to hit on a curious confirmation of this theory, not to my knowledge recorded.

There is from Etruria, down through the great series of plains as you go toward Naples and thence to Brindisi, a line of Pelasgic remains, every hill-site along the flanks of the Volscian and Sabine hills showing in the substructures that peculiar polygonal masonry of which the walls of Segni are a most marked example and in excellent preservation. Traces appear in the Ionian Isles, along the coast of the Morea, and all through Crete and the Archipelago, with a culminating importance and perfection in the Argolide, where Tiryns, the reputed birthplace of Hercules, represents the first style, Mycena the second, and Argos the third. At Mycenæ is the celebrated relief of the Lions over the city gate, a piece of sculpture which shows distinctly the characteristics of an art archaic but tolerably advanced, and far superior in spirit and design to anything which Egypt or Assyria had produced long after this had been executed.* It is made in an exceedingly hard limestone, which is popularly mistaken for flint, and is as difficult to work as porphyry, and which in that climate has preserved its worked surface uninjured. I climbed up on the relief to examine it closely, and found from the undercuttings that the manner of execution had been the same as the early Etruscan intaglii-by a series of drill-holes, having the intervening stone apparently removed by attrition, and with no vestige of the use of an edged or pointed tool. With this light I commenced an examination of all the so-called Pelasgic remains on the Argolide, and found that without an exception they appeared to have been done by attrition or per

The earliest Egyptian sculpture is dated as of the 22d cent. B.C., that of Assyria in the 10th, while the building of Mycenae is put by tradition at 1300 B.C., and that of Tiryns at 1379, an exactitude of date as fabulous as the manner of building, and, like all dates of Greek mythic origin, only of slight comparative value. Thus, Tiryns was no doubt built before Mycenae, but by the same art, and on the same system of fortification; if instead of 79 years we put several centuries, we shall come nearer the progress made between the two cities, but if we add 500 years we shall not bring it back to the date of the cave tombs of Egypt, and we carry it further from the early work of Assyria; so that, reasoning from dates, we might conjecture that Assyrian art came from Pelasgi, who had, in Egypt, acquired the art of cutting stone, and who worked for the Assyrians as they had for Hellence.

cussion the latter for facing the masses, and the former when a smooth surface or any ornament was wanted. The so-called Treasury of Atreus (which, by the way be, it said, is precisely similar in construction to the Mamertine Prison in Rome, an Etruscan work of mythical date) is made from masses of a conglomerate split out by some unknown means, and rudely faced by rubbing together; nor here, even in the interior of the building, can the mark of cutting tools be found.

On the top of the ruins of the citadel of Argos, which shows the latest form of polygonal building-the polygonal stones laid three or four deep in courses with parallel sides-I found a stone which had, by some modern force, possibly exerted during its siege in the war of Greek independence, been overturned so that its ancient under-side was exposed, and this showed the whitish marks of facing by blows by a blunt instrument. It was evident in all the examinations I could make that the Pelasgic builders did not know the use of cutting tools for stone, yet the earliest known Egyptian work shows a perfect knowledge of stone-cutting." If, then, civilization came from Egypt to Greece, how is it that the civilizers left the tools of their trades behind them, and that a work so far advanced in its knowledge of art as the Lions of Mycenae should have been done without cutting tools? And why, moreover, should these works, one and all, show so much resemblance to those of Etruria, and so little to those of Egypt or Assyria?

We can now see the importance of these indications, pointed out by Mr. Newton, of an Etruscan art in Cyprus, taken in connection with the numerous city walls as well as the tradition of the Pelasgi. Newton's recognition of Etruscan work where we know the Pelasgi to have been, but have no intimation that the Etruscans ever were, is an unmistakable confirmation of the theory of the identity of the people called by these two names.

If further evidence of this kind, as to the identity of the Pelasgi with the people who brought the primitive arts to Greece, is worth noting, it may be found in the close resemblance of the tombs in the island of Egina, off the coast of Morea, to those of Etruria, which is one of the most curious and, on any other theory, unaccountable coincidences in the history of civilization. Müller opposed to my deductions the fact that the primitive building of every people which is obliged to work with a stone of the character of the limestone of which the Pelasgi made their walls, is more or less of the same polygonal type, but this is a natural and accountable coincidence. What is not accounted for is the fact that all other rude forms of polygonal work are of undressed stone, while the Pelasgic is dressed to a nicety, and fitted perfectly; but when it is a stone that permits quadrate forms, as in parts of the ruins of Mycena, the stones are parallelopipedons, and there is often carving, of which the Lions are the best example, and all done without the use of edge-tools. This proves a high degree of culture and civic organization, attained to in the most complete independence of the East, and makes it probable that, so far from the Etruscans and early Hellenes having borrowed the arts from the East, it was really the Pelasgi, their ancestors, who carried certain of the arts to the East; and that the Etruscan types of ornament and art-work found in Assyria were as likely to have been originally introduced by the Pelasgi as to have been carried by Phoenician vesels to Etruria— more likely, in my opinion, as the Pelasgic naval knowledge antedated that of the whole East, and probably by ages.

Castellani quotes a tradition saying that the Pelasgi-restless and wandering over the whole East without finding a secure home, building cities for uncultured and more energetic races, and then, as in Athens, being driven out of them barbarously-came to the Delphian Oracle to ask what they must do to escape their misery, and the oracle replied: "Return to your native land, Italy, and you will find rest.”

In considering this migration of the Pelasgi, we must remember that it was not like a raid of the Goths and Vandals, who swept over empires in a few years, but a process of swarming from one hive to another, building, populating as they went; and when we consider the time it must have cost to build the walls of a single city like some of those on their track, we may conjecture the ages it must have taken to go from Italy to the shores of Asia.

In a future communication, I will try to connect and systematize the traditions and authorities by which I believe that this theory can be maintained. W. J. STILLMAN.

*There is an instance of polygonal masonry at Athens in the terrace-wall of the Pnyx, the antiquity of which has been disputed, as, notwithstanding its polygonal form, it is historically noted as the work of the Thirty in changing the place of the popular assemblies, so that the people might not have the sea before them at their meetings (Plutarch, Them. 19). Had the archeologists, in weighing the question, ever recognized this trait of Pelasgic work, they would have seen at once that the Pnyx wall is unmistakably modern, as the mark of the cutting-tool is seen in all the facing, which is of the fashion known as "rusticated"; and the work was never finished, as we see that the cutting of the stones from the rock each side of the Bema was interrupted, a part of the rock nearly detached still remaining. I think, therefore, that we may decide with Wordsworth that the present Bema is that of the Thirty, and the ancient Puyx that on the crest of the hill.