trials must be held in the State in which the alleged crime was committed. If committed outside of a State, then at such place as congress designates. (See Arts. III and IV, Const.)

(d) Other bodies, etc.-Numerous boards, bureaus and commissions are provided for and appointed as occasion demands, among which may be mentioned the Interstate Commerce Commission; Civil Service Commission; Federal Trade Commission; Federal Reserve Board; Food and Fuel Boards, etc.

CHAPTER IV

THE UNITED STATES AND OTHER NATIONS

1. The Law of Nations

2. Intercourse with other nations

3. Jurisdiction over seas, etc.

4. Ambassadors and ministers

5. Consuls

6. Rights of citizens in foreign countries

7. Nations at war

8. Monroe Doctrine

9. Tariffs

10. Embargo

1. Law of Nations. For the purpose of considering the relation of one nation to another, each political body, known as a "nation," may be deemed a member of that large family of civilized States, or bodies politic, owing to each other State or body, separately and collectively, certain respect and certain duties.

Since each nation is made up simply of a collection of individuals possessing sufficient intelligence to distinguish between right and wrong, and a will capable and free to act; and since it is also presumed that each individual carries with him into the service of the community of which he is a member the same binding law of morality and action which suggests and controls his conduct in private life, it is natural to conclude that there must be recognized by each nation the existence and a due observance of some law or set of rules governing the relationship and intercourse of nations.

While there has never been established or recognized any supreme body or power capable of framing or enacting laws governing the relation of one

nation with another, yet time, reason, morality, necessity and custom, has given rise to and established a set of rules recognized by all civilized nations as law, and termed, in law, the "law of nations," or "international law."

By this law we understand that voluntary established Code of public instruction which defines and prescribes the duties of nations in their intercourse with each other, a faithful observance of which is essential to national character and to the peace and happiness of humanity. According to the observance of Montesquieu, such law is founded on the principal that different nations ought to do to each other as much good in peace, and as little harm in war, as possible, without injury to their own true interests.

It is the fundamental principle of all public law that nations are equal in respect to each other, and entitled to claim equal consideration for their rights, whatever may be their relative dimensions or strength, or however they may differ in government, religion, or manners.

International law is the most voluntary of all Codes. Among the ancients there was no recognized science of law governing the relationship of one people with another, and even among the most refined States of the time there was no conception, even, of the moral obligations of justice and humanity between nations. The laws, if any could be said to have existed, of war and peace were alike barbarous and deplorable. Strangers and enemies were regarded as nearly synonymous, and foreign persons and property were considered as lawful prizes.

The influence of Christianity, in time and in a way, brought about a more enlightened sense of right and justice among governments, teaching, as it did, the duty of benevolence to strangers, of humanity to the vanquished, and the obligation of good faith and charity. This teaching in time had a beneficial effect upon the rules of war, bringing about the custom of making declarations of war by heralds

and a recognition of the fact that to attack an enemy by surprise was an act cowardly and dishonorable.

The introduction and recognition of the civil law also contributed to a large extent to a more correct and liberal view of the rights and duties of nations, and finally through the necessity of commercial intercourse and business between nations there arose an interchange of ideas and terms, bringing about the adoption of treaties, and in this way a still more direct and tenable influence was had in the formation and recognition of a modern Code of public law. Through admitting, interchange and recognition of resident ministers and ambassadors at each sovereign court, a further important step was taken toward the security and facility of national inter

course.

It is unfortunate, as we are now learning at such a sacrifice, that the precepts of this public Code are not defined, and that nations have no common civil tribunal to which to resort for the interpretation and execution of this law; that its recognition and obedience thereto is so much a moral obligation, depending, in that respect, so much upon the honor of nations. It is apparent we have, after all, with our advanced civilization, made little progress in this connection, for there is yet no power to enforce observance of such law, beyond the power of one or more nations, as it or they see fit, to make war upon another nation. It is to be hoped that out of the Titanic conflict now raging between nations that there may come, with the adoption of peace treaties, a court or tribunal tọ which can and will be taken, and in which must be settled, all future international differences, that hereafter right and justice, rather than might and force, may rule and govern in the adjustment of all international disputes and affairs.

When the United States assumed the character of an independent nation, they at once became subject, in the same way and to the same extent as other nations, to the then recognized laws of civilized nations, and today are subject to and governed in the same way thereby.