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14. In the word avròs we have the original demonstrative at the close. The form of the entire word might be accounted for in two ways: 1st, that it were an unaspirated modification of ouros or róaros; or 2d, that the au corresponded to the ip in ipse, ipsus, or iptus. We should, however, have a difficulty in accounting for the meaning of the syllable aù or ip.

15. The pronoun ille, illa, illud, or illus, illa, illum, seems to have been originally identical with alius, alia, aliud; or alius, alia, alium; or λ20s, ἄλλη, ἄλλο; or ἄλλος, ἄλλη, ἄλλον.

16. The letter k seems to be at the root of all

words of juncture, and, after a long and celibate condition in the form of xai and que, to have taken to itself genders and case inflexions, and so to have originated or begotten the relative pronoun, ös, eos, quos, quus, qui, or who.

17. Before the general use of case endings, separate words would be affixed or prefixed to the roots of nouns, to express their relationship to other words in one and the same sentence. If such words became familiarly used as affixes, they would gradually become corrupted in sound, would amalgamate with the preceding root, and lead to the formation of case endings.

18. The three primitive prepositions, prefixes, or affixes, would probably be monosyllables, employed to express the ideas of motion from or out of, motion or rest on, and motion towards or upon; and we have probably such primitive prefixes or affixes in the words, izç, efs, ¿ñç, abs; con, iπs; ivs, eis, ins, ad, to.

19. The words would seem to be a modification of άs, and the root of the word would seem to be the letter, which appears, distinctly or indistinctly, in up, super, over. The hard guttural k, or its modification of f, and the subsequent modification of the unaspirated p, seems to be the root of the prefix or affix indicating motion from. The letter n or m appears to have suggested, by its liquid or reverberating or continuous sound, the idea of motion towards, or upon.

20. It is possible that such affixes or prefixes would be sounded ixs, is, ivs, before a root commencing with a vowel; and ix, ¿π, iv, before a root commencing with a consonant.

21. All roots of nouns and verbs, in the languages under consideration, consist of two consonants, connected by a vowel sound. This vowel sound might precede or follow or separate the consonants. In the great majority of instances it would separate them.

entirely, or almost entirely, of consonantal monosyllables. Musical taste, or the desire of rapid and continuous utterance, would suggest a vocalic or a liquid termination. Such a liquid termination we may possibly have in the letter s, which appears as a termination to prepositions, and to all subjective cases, masculine and feminine. In the subjective case of many feminine words, it seems to have fallen early into disuse, from the circumstance that the modification of gender tion of vowel, and the case by some preceding or seemed clearly enough indicated by the modifica succeeding word or words.

23. The consonantal declension of nouns, and

the consonantal conjugation of verbs, are probably older than the same when modified by the vowels. In vocalising the roots of nouns and verbs by vowel affixes, it would be a matter of indifference at first which vowel were used, and in different dialects we should expect to find difference

usage.

24. At first, also, in the roots of ordinary words the vowel sound would be varied indifferently. The use, however, of the vowel sound would become of very great importance indeed, when the consonantal part of a root were required to express two correlative ideas. The difference of idea would then, in many cases, be expressed by a modification of vowel sound. Thus it is possible that such a word as cal-idus is a mere modification of a much older word, gel-idus. Wherever ideas run in couples, or wherever one idea of necessity suggests an opposite, we may be on the look-out for identity of root with variety of vowel sound. Thus, in the conjugation of verbs, the mood of direct or positive statement would be for a long while the only one in use. High civilisa tion and accuracy of thought would suggest the use of a mood of indirect, qualified, or dubitative statement, and this would be formed out of the original mood by the simple expedient of vowel

modification.

25. The introduction of writing, and the diffu

sion of written or printed books, would tend to obliterate the dubitative mood. Its gradual rise and general use would have probably been due to the lack of dubitative meaning in conjunctive or relative words. As in course of time such words became inseparably or generally connected with the notion of doubt or uncertainty, the vowel modification of the direct word would be considered superfluous.

26. In the use of quum—or wenn, when-as attached to subjunctives in Latin, especially with particular tenses, we have in many cases the con22. A very primitive sentence would consist servation of an ancient mode of speech. We

have a conjunction, used originally with dubitative tenses, continuing the usage after its meaning had become modified, the temporal quum retaining the grammar of its originally conditional meaning.

27. The oldest nouns are probably those expressing visible and common objects, such as the sun, moon, stars, clouds, water, fire, grass, trees, flowers, animals, stones; degrees of consanguinity, wherein some one or two words would have a very wide range; titles of respect, which would for a long while be very limited in number; articles of clothing, food, furniture, and ornament.

28. The oldest adjectives are probably such as express the colours of visible objects, or the taste of various articles of food. The nose seems to be indebted for its adjectives to the eyes and palate, and the ear to the sense of touch. The adjectives originally appertaining to the senses would very soon be used, metaphorically, to express mental and moral qualities.

29. The adverb would be introduced very late into language. It is an efflorescence of the adjective. It might be formed in many ways. An adjective might be qualified by the addition of a limiting adjective, such as "like or "ly," or by the appendage of such a noun as "way," "ways," or "wise," or by a prepositional affix, or caseending.

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30. The degrees of comparison would also make their appearance at a late stage in the development of language. Possibly, at first, there would only be two such degrees. Such an adjective as "good" might, by means of a prefix or affix, be made to mean แ very good." Rhetoric would carry the idea of modification still further. "Very good" would be left behind in a middle stage, and a third degree would be invented, with the meaning "good as good can be," or "good, good, good," or "good, and there stop."

bably aw, I breathe; which, in fact, is a mere inpiration and expiration of sound; "w, I go, for the idea of breathing would suggest the idea of motion; and the idea of motion would suggest the idea, much more difficult to grasp, of life, and would lead insensibly to the verb w or siμì, I am. It is not improbable that the verb of motion would precede by a long period the verb of existence. The verb w, I go, might be intensified by means of an aspirate into w, or in, I make to go, I send. It may as well be observed that the accentuation, su, I go, or I am to go, is normal; which circumstance makes it as a primitive verb; whereas, the accentuation of si, sum, is oxytone, abnormal, and seems to indicate that the verb is secondarily formed, or a derivative verb.

32. It is probable that over a very long space of time verbs would have only one mood, that of direct statement; or, as we are in the habit of naming it-poorly indeed-the indicative mood.

33. It is also probable that over a long period of time there would be only two tenses, past and future; and that these two tenses would both be used indefinitely; the former to embrace all the past up to the moment of speaking; and the latter to embrace all the future from the moment of speaking.

34. Tenses of habituality or frequentativeness, or inceptiveness, would probably be introduced before a present tense or a past tense, definite. If so, we need not be surprised to meet continually such words as δίδωμι, κρύττω, τύπτω, εὑρίσκω, außáva; or surprised at the absence of such definite words as δῶμι, κρύβω, τύπω, εύξω, λάβω ; and the like. And we may as well remark, that the accentuation of such words as λaße for aẞéval, and aßùv for λaßovs, is old, and in keeping with the accentuation of such primitive words as leva and iv for iovs; and that the accen31. The letter or r seems to hold an import- tuation of such a word as λaußávwv, and the puzzlant place in the formation of the comparative ing variation through its various cases, is due to degree. We need not have been surprised to have the laws of a comparatively recent mode of speech. found such letters as s, m, n, l. z, performing a 35. The Greek augment-as it is very poorly similar function; or, indeed, any letters that sug-named-was probably, at first, a reduplicate pregest a reverberant, prolonged, continuous, and fix. Such a reduplicate prefix would probably be liquid sound. And, by the by, both and v are comparative letters in Greek.

used, at the outset, to denote repetition or repeatedness; and subsequently would be employed, The letters or or st seem to predominate in the with the assistance of a termination or affix, to formation of superlatives, and they are the root suggest the idea of past action or condition. The of words indicating rest, cessation, stopping. difficulty of continually varying the reduplicate They seem to say to a positive or ordinary ad-letter would lead to the prefix of the initial letter jective, "Hither shalt thou go, and no further; of some familiar and ever recurring verb, such as and here shall thy meaning be STayed." δωμι οι δύω, οι γάω. The former of these verbs 31. Amongst the very earliest of verbs are pro- seems to have supplied the reduplicate affix in

Teutonic, and the latter the reduplicate prefix, in such words did, fixt, taught; gedicht, gestwehen. The Greek augment is probably a softening of the guttural sound yɛ or gě.

turesome enough to say that meum ire, or me' ire is the real Latin, and me ire the false Latin of usage.

37. In the sentence given in the last article, me ire domum non expectandum est, in what case is ez

36. What is now called the present participle active is only the efflorescence of the present infini-pectandum, and why? Had the word been certum, we should have translated the sentence, My going home is a thing settled: and we should have said that certum was in the nominative case, as agreeing with the nominative to the verb let ; and that the nominative to the verb est was me ire or my going; and that certum was in the neuter, or neither gender, because it would be ridiculous to consider a circumstance such as my going, to be consider it black or white. either masculine or feminine; as ridiculous as to

tive active; the latter may be considered as the base stump, and the former as the tree when clothed with foliage. In other words, the latter whether used as a noun or adjective is indeclinable; and the former admits of changes both of gender and of case; although in Latin it has ceased to distinguish feminine from masculine. In such a sentence as, dixit se ire domum, în iévaι oixóvds, we may have the infinitive used as a present par ticiple or verbal adjective agreeing with its noun, which noun, expressed or latent, is in the objective case as following an ordinary transitive verb; and the sentence may be translated, He spoke of himself as going home. Or, again, we may have in ire the real accusative of a verbal noun—ire for ien, for ienä-following dixit, and se the corrupted form of a pronoun adjective agreeing with its noun ire.

such a sentence as me ire non expectandum est, But, by the bye, are we quite sure that even in that expectandum will follow the rule of an ordiall? If it has come to be used as one, is not the nary adjective like certum? Is it an adjective at usage an inaccuracy due entirely to analogy, and Let us investigate the nature and usage of similar the fallacious grammar of appearances or sound?

expressions.

An infinitive mood with a preceding case is far 38. The word is, and its various parts, may be used, more often used after an active transitive verb, in any language, in a variety of meanings, totally than as a nominative to any verb. The grammar unconnected with the idea of existence. In such of sound might gradually identify it with an accusative under all circumstances. The probability we may mean either, It is not my father's WAY to a sentence as, non patris mei est similia facere, is that a verbal noun would originally be nomina-do the like: or, It is not my father's DUTY to do tive and accusative just where other nouns would be the one or the other.

In such a sentence as, ἑκὼν εἶναι οὐκ ἂν ταῦτα gάrro, we have the infinitive joined with the nominative, and the participial or declined form of the verbal adjective would, grammatically, have done as well, or better; although, perhaps, its use would not have been so euphonious. Again, in such a sentence as me irè domum non expectandum est, the me may be explained in another way. What is not to be expected is not myself, but my going, or I going. Had the sentence begun with Ego, the verb would have been sum, and the verbal adjective expectandus, and the sentence Ego irè non expectandus sum, might have suggested the meaning, I when going am but to be expected. The objective or accusative case may have been used incorrectly to avoid ambiguity in meaning, or merely for euphony, as the French in certain cases use moi for je.

We need not have been surprised had the Latin stood thus meum ire non expectandum est. Indeed, I think it would be venturesome to term this bad Latin, so far as the expression meum ire is concerned. For my own part, I would be ven

the like: and the context of a conversation would easily suggest the right acceptation of our words.

Again, if I were smoking in a public garden, and a policeman were to tap me on the shoulder, and say, Sir, there is no smoking here, I should at once understand that he meant, "Sir, smoking is not allowed here."

Again, if, in a double-bedded room at an inn, a friend and myself were kept awake by a current of air and a banging of doors, and my friend, in agony, should exclaim, Well, well; there is no sleeping here, I should understand him to mean that sleeping was impossible.

Now, in the last pair of instances, the ideas of propriety and possibility are not expressed by the verbal nouns, smoking and sleeping; but entirely by a forcible, emphatic, usage of the word is. In a similar way we may explain certain idioms in Greek and Latin.

The sentence, Οὐ κολαστέον ἐστὶ τὸ παιδίον, would be correctly translated, There is no punishing the child and we should require to know the circumstances under which the words were spoken, before we could determine whether the speaker meant, We MUST not punish the child: or, We

CANNOT punish the child. There is nothing whatever in zaλaoriov, to guide us, and the word or may be used with equal correctness either to signify propriety or possibility.

So also, Non tibi hic dormiendum est, means, There is no sleeping for you here; and is similarly ambiguous.

not be fairly illustrated by a parallel idiom in Latin or Teutonic. I am now inclined to differ with this previously-expressed opinion. I am convinced in my own mind that there is not the slightest trace of dubitative or negative meaning in the particle, that it answers to the German Sō, and, when attached to either the definite or dubitative mood, invariably makes of it a mood of consequence, and so appears to have a clenching rather than a negational meaning. Thus in the senεἰ ἔχωμεν, δώσομεν ἄν·

In the Greek instance just given, the grammar of appearances might easily throw rò audiov, When once inaccurately, into a nominative case. the fallacious idea were conceived, a verbal adjec-tences:tive, zoλaorios, would be invented, and we should look for such sentences as, οἱ παῖδες οὐ κολαστέοι

εἰσίν.

A

εἰ ἔχομεν, διδοίημεν ἄν·
εἰ εἶχεν, ἐδίδου ἄν·
εἰ ἔσχεν, ἔδωκεν ἄν·

for the imperative is only an abbreviated form of

one tense of one of these-we have the two moods

made consequential moods by the use of av, so, on this or that hypothesis. It is worthy of remark, that in such a sentence as the first of the above four in Greek, we find practically, the av united with ɛi, and in the wrong clause of the sentence. The fact is, that in course of time, av came to be considered as of dubitative worth, and seemed improperly connected with a future tense denoting really intended action. Observe, it kept its place in the past tenses of the definite mood, as in the third and fourth sentence above, as in these it always referred to a consequence now impossible.

This inaccurate formation of a verbal adjective, We have, in the first halves, tenses of dubitative to which is wrongfully ascribed the idea of pro- and definite moods made hypothetic by the prefix priety or possibility really inherent in the sub-si; and in the latter halves, we have the two moods stantive verb, extends to Latin, and no wonder.and, by the bye, there are really no other moods, We should not be astonished to read, Hic libellulus non legendus est, although we should acknowledge that we had older and more correct Latinity in non legendum est hunc libellulum, which sentence we might, of course, translate two ways, according to the current of our thoughts. cautious fellow might translate it, There is no reading this bookling, and he would be giving neither praise nor blame; a captious critic might translate it, You must not read this bookling, implying that it were not worth the reading; whereas, if the author were addressing a critic, he would, with or without a tibi, translate the sentence, You can't read this bookie: meaning, of course, that he could not make out the drift of it. 39. In such sentences as ἐπιχειρητέον ἐστὶ τμ gy, obtemperandum est patri, we have correct grammar. The nouns in the dative or locative are governed by the verbal nouns, whose sense of motion is derived from the propositions and obs; and the meaning of propriety or possibility has to be extracted entirely from 67 or est. Of course, in such sentences as the two here given, the chances are very great indeed that the meaning here is the idea of propriety. The contest of a conversation or a written sentence might, however, demand the meaning of possibility; as in such a sentence as εἰ οὕτως με θορυβεῖς, πῶς ποτέ ἐπιχειρητέον ἐστὶ τῷ ἔργῳ.

40. I have asserted elsewhere that the usage of ais, perhaps, the only idiom in Greek that can

41. Language appears to admit of only two persons, and to supply the third by a modification of the second. This is the case in the third singular of verbs, as we may see in doest, doth; das, dant; but not in the third plural of the same, for in Greek, Latin, and Teutonic, there is no third person plural proper for verbs, but the place is supplied by a corruption of the verbal adjective, as in vri, sunt, for asent, for asend, for asen; yiyvora, Tori, habent, for habend, for haben.

42. Language, also, and common sense admit only of two genders, masculine and feminine. What is termed a neuter noun will be found on examination to be but an imperfect, ill-spelt, or slatternly-formed masculine.

LORD PALMERSTON'S EDUCATION AND EARLY PRECEPTS.*

A

"Un' oncia di prudenza val più che una libra d'oro."

An ounce of prudence is worth more than a

"Parla poco, e parla bene, se non vuoi esser tenuto per uno sciocco."

Speak little, and speak well, if you would be looked upon as a man of merit.

"E meglio sdrucciolar co' piedi che colla lingua.” It is better to make a slip with one's foot than one's tongue.

"Chi troppo vuole, niente à."

Grasp all, lose all.

"As to myself," says the author, "I am of the same opinion as Ariosto, and will say that-Chi vuol esser mio amico, non dica male delle donne." This loyalty to the sex always characterised his illustrious pupil.

The copy of Signor Ravizzotti's Grammar which lies before me is the fifth edition. It is dedicated by permission to "The Right Hon. Lord Viscount Palmerston." As the dedication throws some light on the acquisitions of the pupil as well as the character and gratitude of the teacher, it will be read with interest at the present moment:

LL Lord Palmerston's biographers regret that little or nothing is known of his early education before he went to Harrow. I am glad to be able, pound of gold. from private and authentic sources, to clear up this obscurity. The truth is, he was educated at home under his father's own eye. The second Viscount, the father of our great statesman-a man of fine literary taste, of lively humour, and an admirable judge of pictures and sculpture was fortunate in making the acquaintance of Signor Gaetano Ravizzotti, an Italian refugee, of noble family and singular accomplishments, whom he invited to Broadlands to superintend the education of his sons Henry and William, especially in the Continental languages. They delighted in his society, and when the former went to Harrow, he spoke both French and Italian with the utmost ease and purity. The Paris correspondent of the Daily Telegraph stated a day or two ago that he was told by Ricasoli that "when he was introduced to the lamented Premier he was overwhelmed with astonishment at hearing himself addressed in Italian so pure, that many of those who profess to speak that bastard Latin, with the bocca Romana, would have been unable to equal the Englishman's accent and true con- "Having had the honour of a share in your struction." This was the pupil of Gaetano Raviz-education, and particularly in the Italian and zotti, who, when other boys were painfully construing Phædrus or Cæsar, was familiar with Dante, Tasso, and Metastasio, and spoke Italian like a native. The Signor's method was so successful, that he was persuaded to publish an Italian grammar, the first edition of which was published in 1797, and which soon superseded the "Italian Master" of Veneroni. The best critics discovered in the work great philological knowledge, and an acute and vigorous understanding. "It is so judicious and masterly," they said, "that it must greatly facilitate the acquirement of the Italian language." The work contains a selection of beauties from the best Italian poets, which the promising pupil used to read with the master, and some chosen proverbs and maxims, which the observers of Lord Palmerston's career might fancy he never forgot. For example:"Il volto sciolto, i pensieri stretti."

French languages, both of which you possess with a degree of correctness and purity,† I beg your acceptance of the following work, which I am emboldened to lay before the public, because I flatter myself it is calculated to render the acquisition of the Italian language a matter of as little difficulty to others as it has been to you.

"Whatever may be the merit of this offering, I trust you will accept it as a sincere testimony of respect and attachment, and a grateful acknow ledgment of the unremitted friendship and kindness with which I have been honoured both by yourself and your noble parents since the period when the charge of your instruction was first confided to my care.

Accept, my Lord, what it becomes me to offer, the sincerest wishes of a grateful heart. That the period of your future life may be long, happy, and honourable, is the ardent prayer of

Let your countenance be open, and your him who has the honour to subscribe himself, thoughts close.

Extracted from a series of able and interesting papers on Lord Palmerston in the Scotsman.

with the most grateful and affectionate attach

Lord Palmerston's modest and deleting pen went to work upon certain encomiastic adjectives in this sentence.

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