attention." "An ungraceful manner of speaking, awkward motions, or a disagreeable address, are great clogs to the ablest men of business." This species of training received among the ancients a great degree of attention, particularly from their orators, in whose education it occupied a chief place. "Every emotion of the mind," says Cicero, "has from nature its own peculiar look, tone, and gesture; and the whole frame of a man, and his whole countenance, and the variations of his voice, sound like strings in a musical instrument, just as they are moved by the affections of the mind." Looks, tones, and gestures are frequently much more expressive than words, and in every one who claims to be regarded as educated, the two ought naturally to go together. This is only to be done by careful training, and directing the attention to the different movements. In this case the mode of teaching differs from the other, and is not done at the word of command; but the teacher having explained and even shewn the exercise which is to be done, designates it only by a clear and intelligible expression, and by a second expression directs the action to be commenced. If the exercise consists of several parts, they are to be designated as one, two, three, &c., or it may be by looks and gestures.

These remarks will shew the nature of the physical education which we have in view, and we may appropriately conclude by noticing certain of the beneficial results which would follow from it. We have already noticed what we regard as the main object of physical education, that, namely, of bringing the various bodily powers under the direction and control of the will, so that they may render it ready and efficient service. Many good intentions perish from want of ability to carry them out into action. The unexercised weakly body creeps at the command of the will, and seldom obeys it, except in those points which are agreeable to it. "The weaker the body, the more it commands; the stronger it is, the more it obeys." (Rousseau.)

One important result of physical exercise is, that it imparts health and vigour to all parts of the system. It accelerates the circulation of the blood, strengthens the vessels, increases the cutaneous exhalations, and preserves the fluids in a healthy state; improves the appetite, quickens the digestive operations, and augments the heat of the body. The body is thus rendered capable of resisting colds, and fortified against the attack of numerous diseases. Even in the cure of disease, physical exercise was recognised as an important means as early as the time of Hippocrates, his master, Herodicus, being said to be the first

that introduced it in this way. It imparts symmetry and beauty to the entire frame, and gives an agreeable air and grace to the movements, which never fail to prepossess. More important, though less understood or regarded, is the effect of physical exercise upon the mental operations. The effect of the body upon the mind is everywhere very marked. Not only is health of body necessary to soundness of mind, but the exercise of the bodily powers exerts a direct influence upon the operations of the mind. "Mirum est," says Pliny, "ut animus agitatione motuque corporis excitetur." The mind is first awakened into consciousness by impressions received through the bodily organs, and these ever exert an important influence upon it. It is with these impressions that the understanding first exercises itself. "Hence," says Salzmann, "the more we bring our body into collision with surrounding objects, that is, the more we exercise it, the more will its organs be sharpened, and the mental powers be roused to examine the various relations of those objects to us, and investigate their effects." The natural course of all training is from the body to the mind, from the external to the internal, and there are various of our mental faculties that most receive their earliest, and ever receive their best, training through the exercise of the body. The attention which has been trained to concentrate itself upon external objects will be more readily and perfectly brought to bear upon mental states. The will, which has been accustomed to assert its dominion in the movements of the body, will be better able to control the operations of the mind. That magnanimity of mind and manliness of spirit that characterised the ancients, is no doubt to be traced to their high physical training. It also has an important effect in cultivating the aesthetic faculty, by developing a taste for beauty of form and motion; and to this we are indebted for those models of antiquity that are still unsurpassed. Physical exercise, too, by directing our thoughts and activities outwards, and withdrawing them from self, is the best preservative against melancholy, misanthropy, hypochondria, and a host of other mental or nervous disorders that affect mankind. For want of proper exercise, a man becomes a visionary, an enthusiast, a fanatic. "To thousands, the world appears to-day serene and bright, to-morrow dismal and gloomy; to-day they can displace mountains, to-morrow they cannot move a straw." "And this complete change is commonly produced by the state of their bodies alone." Nor is the moral effect of physical exercise less remarkable than the intellectual; and many of the old divines

are to be found recommending it as a means of driving out the devil. Many of the passions with which we have to contend have their basis in our physical constitution, and derive strength from the very weakness of our other powers. "Physical decline and moral depravity are intimately connected, and those laws which are requisite for the preservation of health serve also to preserve and improve the morals." "In a word, our moral health and energy are commonly the result of our physical health and strength, and our moral failings are often nothing more than consequences of our bodily defects."—(Salzmann.) By action we diminish the nervous susceptibility, which only finds delight in pleasurable sensations, and which is a great source of immorality. Besides, it is by good actions that men become truly moral and virtuous, and for right action physical training is necessary.

Another important result of correct physical training, is exactly the same as that of a master having a servant on whose ability and skill he can confidently rely. He knows that his commands will be attended to, that his orders will be properly executed, and, consequently, he does not require to give minute directions, or go into details, or superintend the several operations, and he can thus give his undivided attention to more important objects. In the same way, the man whose physical powers have been properly trained, knows that he can rely upon their readily and efficiently carrying out his intentions, is enabled to direct his attention to more important matters, and in cases of difficulty or danger, to see and at once seize upon any means of escape or relief that may present themselves. 'Thousands," says Salzmann, "meet with accidents every year, because they are lumpish, helpless, and liable to turn giddy, because they want power, agility, address, to help themselves." Address doubles the faculties of the mind, and to know how to employ our powers to the best advantage, often supplies the place of strength. The public speaker, for instance, who feels confident that his position is natural, and that his thoughts and expressions will be accompanied by their appropriate actions, can keep his mind quite at ease on these points, and concentrate his attention entirely on the

matter of his discourse. He, on the other hand, who is conscious of awkwardness in his position, of impropriety in his movements, cannot look naturally or speak connectedly on the subject before him, from his attention being constantly called away by his bodily feelings, and a painful consciousness of his position. Hence Whately recommends the public speaker to study to avoid as far as possible all thoughts of self; for in the same degree that he is thinking of himself, he is 'abstracting his attention from that which ought to occupy it exclusively." There is no better way of abstracting attention from self than by accustoming ourselves to natural and correct movements, so that they become habits, and are performed almost instinctively.

Another important result of correct physical training, which we have not seen noticed in any e the numerous works on the subject, but which we believe to be not less real than the others. is what we may term the reflex action of movement upon thought. We do not allude here to what may be termed the physical effect of motion upon thought, or the increased rapidity of thought and clearness of ideas that brisk physical exercise tends to produce; but to the tendency of correct physical action to suggest the proper words and expressions. We believe that there is such an intimate connection between feeling and action, thought and expression, that the one tends naturally to suggest the other; and not only that the word, thought, or feeling tends naturally to produce the proper action, but that the action also tends to suggest the proper word, thought, or feeling. Burke, in his essay on the Sublime and Beautiful, remarks, that "there is such a connection between the external feeling of a passion and the external expression of it, that we cannot put ourselves in the position or attitude of any passion without communicating a certain degree of the passion itself to the mind." Hence we believe, not only that appropriate action will naturally follow correct thought, but that by means of correct action the appropriate thoughts and expressions will be suggested, the action will not only suit itself to the thought, but the thought will do so to the action.

167

G

O far as they have gone, either in Scotland or England, the Revised Code examinations shew that the weak point of the elementary schools is arithmetic. The following are the percentage of failures in the three R.'s :

oftener depend on his own power of correct and quick calculation than on any text-book. We propose to give one or two instances of plans by which this exercising of scholars in the elementary rules may be greatly facilitated. Some of them are new, and some old, and our purpose will be gained if we excite teachers to increase the stock for themselves.

(1.) In simple addition, the answer can be very easily got by reading out the question, &c., that the sum of each pair of lines = 100, 1000, &c. For instance,

Reading,

Writing,

Arithmetic,

The Scotch returns are only for the period May to August 1864, and would seem therefore scarcely to present a fair basis for the comparison made between the two countries in Parliament by Mr Bruce; yet, at the same time, they shew that in both, and especially in Scotland, teachers must be bestirring themselves. The cause of the inferiority in arithmetic can, we think, be easily ascertained. In this branch, where practical facility depends so much upon routine drilling, repetition of examples, and correction of mistakes, the pupilteacher's services were invaluable. Here, therefore, it was to be expected that the first effects of the reduction in their numbers,-a reduction of nearly twenty per cent.,-would be observed. Teachers will now require to make up for this want by such appliances as are within their reach. Text-books, containing the greatest number and variety of examples, are now more in request, and in more than one school, sets of cards, filled with examples in the different rules, are being largely used. Depending more on their own unaided efforts, teachers must now call to aid all means by which rapidity and correctness may be secured. The old plan, of putting down each pupil to work questions from his own book, will clearly not gain the desired result. Arithmetic must now be taught in classes, and in too many cases the teacher must have two or more of these going on simultaneously. To do this efficiently, he must

The first line is any number; second, that number diminished by another easily subtracted; third, double the second; and, fourth, the number subtracted from highest multiplied by 3. Answer is four times the top line.

(4) Write on the black board a horizontal line of figures, adding as you go along. Then ask the pupil to put down the same figures, except the first, one place to the left, putting the first to supply the vacant space on the right. Then form the third in

The sum of the right hand line is 36 (which you ascertained when putting down the question line); each of the others is the same, with the carriage 3 added to it.

(5.) The following is another case where an addition class may construct its own question, and the teacher can quite easily verify the result. Put down a horizontal line of figures, even in the unit's place, multiply by 5, put the product below, ask the pupil to add these two lines, put the sum below, and then add the sum to the line above, and go on doing so till there are 12 lines in all; the 12th line is 100 times the second, or 500 times

[The Museum, August 1. 1865

three lines have been read out, their sum is the line immediately below them. SUBTRACTION.

(1.) Put for the minuend a number consisting of repetition of the same figure; let the sum of each pair of figures in the subtrahend figure in minuend. The answer is obvious:

88

88 | 88 | 88

35

44 62 71

53 44 26 17

=

9999 | 99 | 99 | 99 90 81 27 63 54

9 18 72 36 45 I (2.) Or, as an exercise where borrowing and carrying will come in, let the minuend consist of a single digit, followed by ciphers, and the subtrahend of any multiples of 9 below 99. Thus :80 | 00 | 00 | 00 | 00 | 00 | 00 54 36 81 90 27 45 63

35 63 18 09 72 54 73

With the exception of the first and last figures, which must be wrought, the answer may be read off at sight. Each pair of figures in the answer is simply the reversion of the two immediately above in the subtrahend.

(3.) Put down for a minuend a series of multiples of any number, for a subtrahend the same series of a smaller number. The answer will be the multiples of the difference of the numbers in the same series.

Examples.

16, 24, 32, 40, 48 = multiples of 8 from 2 to 8 times. 12, 18, 24, 30, 36= 6 ,,

2345680 = 11728400 =

5 a

3468= 17340 = 20808 =

5 a 6 a

73 a

=

253164 73 a

=

409224 = = 128 a 662388191 a 1071612 309 a 1734000500 a or 100 times 5 a The answer is in both cases 100 times the second line, a result easily verified. Another useful exercise is furnished by asking the pupil to sum the whole twelve lines thus put down.

(6.) The following are specimens of questions that might occur more frequently in our arithmetical books :

28, 24, 20, 16, 12, 08, 04

63, 54, 45, 36, 27, 18, 09 =

{multiples of 13 from

times to once.

multiples of 4 from 7 times to once.

{multiples of 9 from

times to once. This requires only an adaptation of the multiplication table, and by omitting a term now and then, an endless variety of examples may be formed. Here are some whose construction may be easily detected:

182736455463 40608101214

142128354249

21426384105

13263952065

8162432040

175185119

144270098

31915021

As we have exhausted our space, we must defer the remaining simple rules to another occasion. We need scarcely remark that very few scholars in the simple rules would be able to force the

answer in any of the examples we have adduced. Even when revising the simple rules with advanced scholars, there is scope for such variety that there would be little fear of them doing so.

E

in a few cases do very much to raise the average standard of care and intelligence in the reading of the whole school.

"The proportion of children who have passed the examination in reading is very large,-11,089 out of 11,476. The failures occur chiefly in the lowest standard, in which the little ones sometimes fail through awe and bewilderment, rather than from absolute ignorance. But although reading, which is fluent and accurate, as far as the mere utterance of words goes, enables so many to pass, I still desire to see more attention paid to style and expression, and I have felt obliged to warn teachers, that after the first examination a more stringent test will be applied in these respects. I fear that reading, even in the higher classes of our schools, will always be dull and lifeless, until teachers are more ready to acknowledge that it is an imitative art, and to be learned, not merely by practice, but by example. Few teachers take pains enough with their own cultivation in this respect, and fewer still train their pupilteachers to anything like finished excellence in the art of reading. When the master or mistress is a graceful reader, the effect on the children is always very manifest. In such schools the teacher reads often to his class, desiring the scholars to follow him, to imitate the distinctness of his utterance, and to observe his tone and emphasis. Occasionally he reads aloud to the whole school a story or piece of poetry, taking pains to make it a model of good elocution. On my visit to a school of this kind I am generally asked to hear one or two of the scholars recite a selected passage, which has been learned by heart for the purpose, and I always notice that these and the

"A great change has taken place of late in the character of the ordinary class books for reading. Several new sets of reading lessons have appeared, which profess to be specially adapted to the Revised Code, and these are rapidly superseding the Irish lesson books. The great fault in that cheap and popular series was, that the language was too

more technical and unfamiliar words than could be adequately explained in a whole day. The result of using such books was seen in the mechanical way in which the children pronounced syllable after syllable, and in their almost complete ignorance of the matter to which the lessons referred. But in the reaction against this form of error it seems to me that the compilers of many modern school books have been betrayed into another. Instead of crowding their pages with information, they have determined to give no information at all. The fear of using a hard and repulsive style has led them to the adoption of language so ostentatiously childish, that it is often difficult to find in a lesson a single word which admits of easier explanation, or which is above the level of the pupil's own daily talk. These books have unquestionable advantages. They facilitate the mechanical art of reading, and they make the lessons attractive and amusing to the little ones. It is a great gain to a child to form pleasant associations with the thought of a book, and to form them as early as possible. But on the other hand, books of this kind teach little except the art of reading. They do nothing to enlarge the learner's vocabulary, or to familiarise him with the ordinary language of books or of educated men. Moreover, they do not suggest to a teacher the necessity for any questioning. They discourage, as far as their influence extends, all cultivation of the intelligence in connection with reading, and they fail to leave on a child's mind a due sense of the seriousness of study, or any strong feeling that he has much to learn from