thus checking the natural impulses of different minds, and crippling voluntary exertion, the source of all true intellectual success, is defeating the purpose for which it exists. But besides this, such a uniformity is at the present day acting against the interests of the Universities themselves. Almost all those situations which government has thrown open to competition, are not acquired by examination in a special prescribed course, but the subjects are within limits left to the choice of the individuals. This is especially the case with the highest of them all, the Indian Civil Service. It may with perfect confidence be affirmed, that those who are successful in the Examination for that Service, are superior to the majority of Scottish Masters of Arts. Yet for the most part these young men are disqualified for passing the examination for M. A. We shall take an instance, We know a young man who competed for the Indian Civil Service. In preparing for the competition, he followed the bent of his own mind, he stood very high in classics, especially in Greek, he stood high in German, he was among the first in Metaphysics, and he was among the first in a knowledge of English Literature and English History. Altogether, he held a high place in the list. Yet for years he had not looked near a mathematical book, he knew almost nothing of Natural Philosophy or Natural Science. The true end, however, of education had been accomplished in him. He went to India with an ardent love for his favourite studies, and we can assert with confidence, that he will continue to have delight in these studies to the end of his days. Before leaving this country he would willingly have connected himself permanently with his own University, but the strict uniformity of the examination prevented him. This case is only one out of many which we know of a similar nature; and these cases will necessarily multiply, for educators are beginning to see that it is their business to develop individuality while training the mind. What then do we recommend? some one may ask. We think that, as Dr Lees proposes, the plan of the Indian Civil Service should be followed. A considerable variety of subjects should be set down, marks should be assigned to each, and the student should be allowed to select from these subjects for examination. If he reaches a certain aggregate number of marks, he should be declared M.A., whatever be the subjects he has chosen. The number of aggregate marks might be so fixed that it would be impossible for a student to become M.A., without being acquainted with several subjects of different training powers. There stands one great obstacle in the way of this necessary reform. At present, the classes in which those subjects are taught, in which the future M.A. is to be examined, are imperative. New classes would require to be established for the new system. And then it would be difficult to make the old classes obligatory. The conse quence might be that the professors in these departments would suffer considerable diminution in their incomes, for they are at present largely dependent on their fees The answer to this objection is, that the classes are not for the professors, but the professors for the classes. A University is in the first place established for the instruction of students, and not for the support of professors. At the same time it is equally plain that there cannot be a good University without well paid professors. And, therefore, we should be delighted to see those men who are now handsomely endowing Edinburgh University with scholarships turn their attention to the dependent state of the professorships. Make the professorships to a considerable extent independent of fees, and then there is no argument against free competition in teaching in the Universities. Open up the Universities to all qualified teachers or lecturers, and there will at once be more energy, more successful teaching, more independent research, and a fuller representation of all branches of knowledge. Dr Lees has also in his admirable pamphlet some judicious remarks on the necessity of one University for Scotland. This matter we reserve for a future occasion. THE CONSCIENCE CLAUSE.-A return has just been published of the cases in which “the educational department of the Privy Council has objected to make a grant towards the building of a National or Church of England School, between the 1st day of January 1861 and the 31st day of December 1864, on the ground that children of dissenters might be excluded from such a school; specifying in each case why the objection was taken, and whether the promoters received it (the grant) by inserting a Conscience Clause in their Trust-Deed." There are seventy-one cases. In forty-one cases, the promoters have agreed to insert the Conscience Clause in their trust-deeds; in eight, no answer has been returned; and in twenty-two, a negative answer has been given. In a considerable number of the twenty-two cases, the half, or more than the half, of the population are dissenters. These facts speak for themselves. They are historical and prophetical. THE MUSEUM, AND English Journal of Education. PHYSICAL EDUCATION. N a previous article* we have endea- | We believe that, in our present condition, matter voured to shew that the body, or material part of man's nature, plays a much more important part in the animal economy than is commonly supposed; that not only are body and spirit inseparably connected together in this life, but that both are inseparably present in every one of our powers and faculties, that both are concerned in every act. Hence every thought that passes through the mind partakes of the material as well as the spiritual, and every action of the body, of the spiritual as well as the material. We believe that wherever we have growth and decay, wherever we have a power or faculty capable of improvement through exercise, subject to fatigue through exertion, and capable of being restored by rest or by material means, then, and to that extent, we have to do with matter. In place of believing that the soul has its seat in some particular part of the brain, or stomach, or other part of the body, or has to do only with some of the higher operations of the mind, we are of opinion that it pervades and animates every part of the system, acting in the minutest cell, as well as guiding and directing the highest operations of the mind. "The soul," says Morell, "is in the whole body, in every part, in every nerve; it forms the peculiar essence of humanity, and with the body it constitutes the reality and the unity of the individual man." The spirit is enveloped in every direction by a material covering, through which, and by means of which, it thinks and acts. * The Body in Education, vol. ii. p. 9. VOL. II. is an essential element in consciousness; or as Dr *To some these views may seem to savour of materialism. "The charge of materialism, however," says Mr Newnham, "will rest on those who represent the mind (spirit) as susceptible of growth in infancy; of development during adolescence; of attaining its full energies in the period of manhood; as liable to decay in common with the failure of the animal powers towards the decline of life; as obscured and enfeebled by disease; as having its functions destroyed by a variety of accidents; and may we not add, as annihilated by death? for if the spiritual principle be thus exposed to the same natural and morbid changes which act upon the body, what ground have we for supposing that the last is not a final change; or that the mental manifestations have any higher origin than that which results from the principle of life, and the influence of N Body and mind are therefore in our view not separate and distinct, but are each compounded of the same elements,-each partake both of matter and spirit. Were this mere matter of opinion, and did we not believe that most important results in the matter of education depended upon a right understanding of this subject, then we should have considered ourselves out of place here in advancing or dwelling upon it. We think it, however, of the utmost importance to the educator to understand the nature of the materials with which he is dealing, how far their operations are subject to law and order, or directed by influences beyond his power of control. If matter is an element of mind as well as of body, then would we expect the laws that regulate the latter to prevail also in the former. Accordingly, do we not find that those that apply to the one are applicable also to the other? Do we not find that the powers and faculties of the mind are developed under exactly the same rules and conditions as those of the body. In the one case as in the other, the great, the only means of improvement is exercise,-exercise under the same conditions and limitations, and adapted to the particular faculty. In all cases, the effect of exercise is the same, rendering operations which are at first difficult or disagreeable gradually less so by practice, until they come to be habitual. From regarding the principle, we may thus come in many cases to understand how we are to deal with the mental constitution of man. present article we restrict it to its commonly received acceptation, and use it as denoting the culture of the external organs of the mind, particularly those of sensation and motion. It is, however, of the utmost importance to keep in view the intimate connection that subsists between our mental and physical natures; a connection which only becomes intelligible to us when we recognise the same material element as present in both The material upon which our mental manifestations depend, is the same as that which constitutes our physical frame, is subject to the same laws and is sustained and nourished in the same way. The same arterial blood nourishes all parts of the system, and is dependent upon the various digestive, respiratory, and other functions of the body. Hence it is that a sound body is necessary to soundness of mind, as in like manner a sound mind is necessary to health of body, for nothing can affect beneficially or injuriously the one without exerting a like effect upon the other. Unfor tunately, however, the important bearings of the cultivation of our physical powers are in a great measure overlooked, and hence the culture of the body has little or no place in our present systems of education. This was not so among the classic nations of antiquity. Among the Greeks, gymnastic exercises were thought of so much importance, that they received as much time and attention as all the other branches of education put together. To this they were indebted for that healthy and beautiful development, in which the Greeks excelled all other nations; and it “at the same time imparted to their minds," accord ing to a writer in Dr Smith's Dictionary of Antiquities, "that power and elasticity which will ever be admired in all their productions." Physical education, then, we regard as the probody? But no! the spiritual principle of man, the divinity per exercising of the different physical organs Though the term physical education would thus in a sense embrace all education, as we hold that our physical or material nature is concerned in all our conscious mental operations, yet in the its harmony upon the healthy play of the several organs of the that stirs within him, continues always the same, and suffers no change from the varying circumstances of oganisation." (Principles of Education.) To seek for proofs of the soul's immateriality and immortality among the changing and perish able, is to seek the living among the dead. They are to be found, not in parts, but in the whole; animating every part; conferring thought and feeling; and manifesting itself in those principles of truth, beauty, and goodness, which are beyond reason or experience, and that aspiration after a more perfect state of being, which indicates a nobler origin and a higher destiny than any pertaining to this life. But even these incomprehensible mental principles are dependent upon our physical nature, in so far as they are only developed and brought out by observation and experience. As, without communication with the external world, our mental nature would be a perfect blank, so without individual instances of beauty or goodness being presented to our observation, these higher principles of our nature would remain undeveloped. It is by the repeated contemplation of such instances that those inner principles of the soul reveal themselves to us, in like manner as the lapidary, by repeated grinding and polishing, brings out the beautiful streaks and colours that lie concealed under the rough exterior of the precious stone. of man in order to render them strong and active in the performance of their various functions. Its object is to render the different members of the body ready, willing, and efficient servants of the mind. We hear much in the present day of utilising our wastes. In our manufactures, our mining and metallurgical operations, everything is done to turn the refuses to the utmost advantage, we take in and cultivate every possible acre of land, and yet how little care do we take of our moral wastes. To say nothing of brain, how little effort is made to cultivate and turn to advantage the bone and sinew that are growing up around us. Yea, is there any one among us that has not within himself such wastes, that is not conscious that there are certain organs of his body, that for want of proper training do not render him that amount of ready and efficient service that they monly neglected, and the pupil is left to hang, otherwise might do. How many of our senses, climb, swing, and perform the other movements at for instance, supply the mind with that amount will, and in any way he pleases. Their main of ready, accurate, and varied information of object also is to develop strength and endurance which they are capable? How many of our in certain of the muscles, to the neglect of others, muscles render the necessary amount of efficient while accuracy, grace, and nicety of movement service to the behests of the mind? There are are entirely overlooked. Physical education, in upwards of 500 muscles in the human body, the our view, has for its main object the training of great majority of which are under the control of the various physical organs to render a ready and the will, and yet for want of proper training they efficient service to the mind. Its movements are in general act in so irregular, slovenly, and therefore not few and simple, but various and awkward a manner, that double the force is re-complicated, and require to be based upon an quired to accomplish half the work that would otherwise be necessary if they were properly trained. By learning to act promptly and at once, not only is the action itself more easy, and the demand upon the nervous powers less, but the mind itself is set free to attend to other duties; whereas the man who is always resolving and reresolving to effect an object, has the mind fre quently recalled to it, and the effort employed in each resolution is often greater than would be necessary for the performance of the duty itself. An awful sea of misery is that mind which is principally taken up with unfulfilled resolutions. The effect of proper physical training is to enable the several bodily powers to perform the greatest amount, with the greatest amount of ease, or the least possible degree of fatigue. Even in the simple and common operation of walking, for instance, how seldom do we see it performed with that ease and grace of which it is capable! We see too much force thrown into certain of the muscles, others unnecessarily called into action, some acting out of their turn, others unnecessarily strained and fatigued. "An easy, graceful, and firm deportment in walking," says one, "is as uncommon as it is dignified and prepossessing. In walking gracefully, every muscle employed is called upon for no more than its fair share of exertion,-all is compact and united, the whole frame proceeds calmly and equably, each part of it acting in unison with the rest." The great object of education, whether physical or mental, is to economise power so that we may have the greatest possible amount of work at the least possible expense of material or effort. Physical education we regard as something very different from that which commonly receives this name. Its object is not to render boys adepts at running and leaping, climbing poles, ascending ropes, or hanging by their hands or heels. In general, such exercises can only be injurious to the system, both mind and body; and, at best, they serve only to develop mere muscular strength. In such cases, all instruction is com intimate knowledge of the structure and physiology of the various organs. They require to be such as are natural and proper to the different parts, and their training to be carried out with a due regard to health and development. That is the correct and proper movement of a muscle which is performed with the least possible degree of fatigue, and with the greatest facility and grace. Exercise should be commenced gently and gradually, beginning with those movements that are simplest and most easy, care being taken not to pass to the more violent and difficult, till the preceding by practice have become quite easy. Every movement should be performed slowly and continuously, without jerk or effort. Almost all our ordinary movements are compound, being made up of a number of minor ones, into which they require to be resolved, and each practised separately in order that the entire movement may be learned fully and accurately. Our attention is intense in the inverse ratio to its extension, and the smaller the movement or portion of a movement upon which it is directed, the more readily and accurately will it be learned. It is of the utmost importance that precision and accuracy be constantly aimed at in the perform. ance of the different movements, as by this means the attention is excited and kept up. It is by thus enforcing the greatest accuracy in the different movements, that military men can engage in the same operations day after day for twenty years with fresh and increasing interest. That system of exercises, which on the whole comes best up to our ideas on the subject, is that which is named after the Swedish physician Ling, and is advocated in this country by Dr Roth,— without, however, its being carried to the unnecessary length that is recommended. We shall here notice some of its leading features, referring for details to the special works published on the subject. It is a characteristic of this system, that this principle we have advocated, of reducing every act to its simplest component parts, is carried out. "Movements, even apparently the intonation, and quickly or slowly, according as the movement is to be done in quick or slow time. The marking and counting of the time is a very essential element, as by means of it the movements are made regular and uniform, and the sense or perception of time is developed. "The metrical development of the speech is made an important object of education; but with regard to the exercises of the limbs, the metrical laws have been very little or not at all thought of, and it is a great advantage of Ling's Gymnastics that it is made one of the principal features."- (Roth.) In exercising, there are first of all the various positions that are to be taken up, as the fundamental, the close, the stride, the walk, the commencing. Then there are the simple or elementary movements of the different parts of the body, as (a) of the head, (b) of the foot and leg, (c) of the arm and hand, (d) of the trunk. These are then combined and varied in many different ways, but not before the respective single movements can be correctly performed. Then there are walking running, and leaping exercises, the object of which, however, is not to develop velocity in the feet, but to teach them to move with steadiness and accuracy, to preserve good postures, and to increase the elasticity of the foot and knee joints. In the different forms of movements with regard to space, the line of movement describes certain symmetrical figures, as in the walk and run exercises, to move in a straight, circular, serpentine line, &c., each of these different modes of moving having some special object with regard to the developing effect of the exercise. most simple, are compounded of several elements. Thus, in so simple a movement as a leap, there are three principal parts clearly distinguishable, which follow each other, and each of these parts consists of smaller ones also distinguishable." It "comprises a raising of the heels, a flexion of the foot and knee joints, &c., forming the first part of the leap; a strong stretching of the different joints, &c., in order to spring from the ground; and, finally, another flexion and stretching of the different limbs in order to finish the leap, and return to the previous upright position." 'Therefore, for a complete consideration of the leap, we have not only to see that it is done with a certain amount of quickness, but that the different motions follow each other one certain way, and in a certain time, and that the separate motions bear a determined relation to each other with regard to time." "It is indispensable for the teacher to divide each movement into its constituent motions or elements, and to mark them during their performance by counting, for only in this way can we become conscious of the form and signification of each movement, or the exercises become conscious actions." "To raise the arms from a hanging position in a loose random way without thinking, and to stretch them in the air, can have little corporeal effect, and certainly no mental one; but to stretch the arms in a manner and direction, and with a velocity all previously determined and exactly prescribed, and then to move their different parts (upper and fore arm, hand, and fingers), precisely as determined and commanded, this is an exercise which, independent of the physiological effect on these There is a still higher and more important kind limbs, tends to awaken and sharpen the sense of of gymnastics, also forming a part of Ling's systime and space. To learn to leap very far or tem, and called æsthetic gymnastics. It embraces very high, it is not necessary to have any special the proper positions and movements of the body gymnastic instruction; but to be enabled to leap by which to express the thoughts and feelings of in a certain way with the least possible expendi- the mind. Every mental emotion or passion has ture of power, with great certainty and precision, appropriate forms of expression, and as these are with graceful ease, with nice regard to distance, effected by means of the muscles, they naturally &c., &c., this is a matter calling for skilful and form a part of physical education. The body is systematic instruction, and such a system con- the index of the mind, and it is of importance stitutes gymnastics." The exercises are performed that the ideas which one wishes to convey to anslowly, at least at first, so that the mind may other should be accompanied with their appromake itself fully conscious of them, and the atten- priate actions, from which they receive force and tion be concentrated upon the different movements. carry conviction to the minds of others. And They are all done as in military exercises at word yet how often do we find the two almost wide as of command, the orders being short and signifi- the poles asunder-actions, for instance, that are cative, and pronounced in an impressive manner. intended to be kind or affectionate, performed in There is, first, the announcing order, which so clumsy and awkward a fashion as to be very describes generally the limb to be moved and the much the reverse. "People," says Chesterfield, direction of the movement, as "Right knee up-"mistake grossly who imagine that the least wards," and then after a short pause the execu- awkwardness in either matter or manner, mind tion order "Bend," pronounced with a strong or body, is an indifferent thing and not worthy of |