dependent power of appointment limited. The President has generally the power of removal without consulting the Senate. The Civil Service. The Civil Service Commission. Congressional privileges of selecting officers. Party patronage.

X. The execution of laws.

A. The Constitution states that the President shall "take care that the laws be faithfully executed." Moreover, he takes an oath of office to this effect. This the most important executive function. Execution of a law of Congress often limited by the terms of the statute itself. Many quasi-legislative and quasi-judicial duties conferred upon the President. Execution of laws extends to treaties of the United States. The President has, therefore, a large ordinance power, and much latitude in law enforcement. The President must see to it that the administrative officers perform their legal duties, but cannot instruct them as to the methods used. He is the head of the national administration.

XI. The President as Commander-in-Chief of the Army and Navy.

A. The President is Commander-in-Chief of the Army

and Navy, and of the Militia when called into
the service of the United States. He may order
the Army and Navy anywhere if the appropria-
tions will allow. Only Congress may declare war,
but the President may, by troop movements, make
war inevitable. Example of President Polk and
the Mexican war.
during war.

Powers of Lincoln and Wilson

XII. Power of the President in foreign relations. A. The President is given the power to appoint Ambassadors and Consuls with the advice and consent of the Senate. He can make treaties with the advice and consent of two-thirds of the Senators present when a treaty is under consideration. He receives Ambassadors from foreign countries. As Commander-in-Chief, he must repel invasions and carry on war declared by Congress. He has the power of recognition of foreign States and governments. He is the only representative of the nation in dealing with foreign nations. The modus vivendi. The Supreme Court is voluntarily bound by the President's decision in regard to questions of foreign relations in their nature. political.

XIII. The pardoning power.

A. The President may pardon any one guilty of an offense against the United States before and after either conviction or indictment. Under amnesty, he may pardon a class and make provision whereby persons affected may establish their membership in that class. Under reprieves, he may suspend execution of sentence for one reason or another. Congress cannot restrict the power of pardon.

XIV. Limitations of the President's powers.

A. The theory of an independent and separate executive. Discretion reposed by Congress in Presidential appointees which the President cannot control. Congressional interference. Legal and judicial limitations. The Taft conception of ex

ecutive power. The Roosevelt conception. The Wilsonian conception.

XV. The position of the President as party leader. A. The President of the United States is chosen because of the support of a political party. Control of the President by the party. The President's control of his party. The President, representing the whole country, can, through messages, appointments, speaking and writing, public appeal and power of veto, control his party and thus control legislation. Assumption by Mr. Wilson of active party leadership.

SUGGESTED READINGS

BEARD, C. A.-American Government and Politics, Chaps. IX-X.
BISHOP, C. F.-Presidential Nominations and Elections.
CORWIN, E. S.—The President's Control of Foreign Relations.
CLEVELAND, G.-Presidential Problems.

FINLEY, J. H. AND J. F. SANDERSON

The American Executive and Executive Methods.

KIMBALL, E.

The National Government of the United States, Chaps. VII-VIII. MASON, E. C.-The Veto Power.

MORAN, T. F.-American Presidents.

OGG, F. A., AND P. O. RAY

Introduction to American Government, Chaps. XVII-XX.

STANWOOD, E.-History of the Presidency.

TAFT, W. H.-Our Chief Magistrate and His Powers.

The Federalist, Nos. LXIX-LXXII.

CHAPTER XL

THE CABINET AND EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENTS

I. The American Cabinet.

II.

A. Under parliamentary systems of government the so-
called Cabinet is a group of leaders of the majority
party of the lower house of the Legislature, col-
lectively responsible to that majority for the de-
termination and administration of policy, and a
body of heads of departments, charged individ-
ually with the details of department administra-
tion. The American Cabinet has the latter char-
acteristic only, and the members are responsible
to the President. The Constitution vests execu-
tive power in the President, gives him the right
to consult the heads of executive departments,
and gives to Congress the right to take the neces-
sary measures to carry out the powers vested by
the Constitution in the government. Under this
authority, Congress established in 1789 the De-
partments of Foreign Affairs, War, and the
Treasury. Together with the Attorney-General,
the heads of these departments became known as
the Cabinet during Washington's administration.

Relation of the Cabinet to the President.
A. The members of the Cabinet are generally of the
party of the President. Moreover, different sec-
tions of the country are represented for political
reasons. Political support often dictates the ap-

pointment of a prominent partyman. Meetings are informal. Under Jackson and Wilson the Cabinet did not function in an advisory capacity. Under Buchanan the Cabinet ran the government. The position of the Cabinet varies with the President and the Cabinet personnel.

III. The political position of the Cabinet.

A. In some cases Cabinet members are the trusted political advisers of the President. While only an executive body, yet many important matters of policy are identified with certain strong Cabinet men. Examples: Hamilton and financial policies; Jefferson and neutrality; John Quincy Adams and the Monroe Doctrine; Blaine and PanAmericanism; Hay and the "open door"; Root and our protectorates; Knox and "dollar diplomacy"; Bryan and world peace; McAdoo and financial reorganization; and Hoover and international trade.

IV. Organization of the executive departments. A. The several heads of departments are called Secretaries, with the exception of the Attorney-General and the Postmaster-General. One or more assistant secretaries are appointed, and are purely political officials. The departments are divided into bureaus or divisions, presided over by chiefs, directors, or commissioners. There is a chief clerk in the departments and bureaus who has charge of the subordinate employees.

V. The Department of State.

A. The Secretary of State, assistant secretaries, and an undersecretary, who ranks next to the Secre