In

instruments over your heads.' It was this same sense of the danger attending the destructive philosophy of the day that led to Voltaire's other remark: 'Atheism and fanaticism are two monsters which may tear society to pieces.' But neither the Encyclopedists nor these philanthropic enemies of the privileges upon which they depended for their incomes saw the wisdom of the observation, and the ferment was ever the greater."-S. Mathews, French revolution, pp. 48, 62-63, 85-86.-"Men who cherished the opinions of Voltaire and the Encyclopedists confused their contempt of Catholicism with love of country. The [French Revolutionary] Convention [elected 1792] gave countenance to this feeling by adopting a new calendar and by substituting for the Christian era a new republican era. the same anti-Christian spirit they welcomed deputations which offered at the bar of the Convention the spoils of parish churches. . . . The radicals of the Commune concluded that they were in the presence of a great popular movement which would lift to supreme influence those who managed to appear as its leaders. They forced Gobel, metropolitan bishop of Paris, and his vicars, to proceed to the Convention and renounce their offices. Three days later, on November 10, they organized a festival of liberty in the cathedral of Nôtre Dame, transformed for the occasion into a 'Temple of Reason.' In the municipal council they ventured still further, voting to close all churches in Paris and to place the priests under surveillance. The Convention was at first intimidated by the Parisian phase of the movement, and many of the ecclesiastics among its members renounced their functions or abjured their faith. A few, led by Bishop Grégoire, stood firm. The most influential men in the Convention and in the Committee of Public Safety realized that such a movement would compromise the cause of the Republic abroad, foment civil strife at home, and jeopardize the national defense. Robespierre became the spokesman of this feeling and denounced the leaders of the movement as ill-disguised emissaries of the invader. The Convention solemnly reaffirmed the liberty of worship, but threw so many qualifications about the act that in most cases the decree remained a dead letter Nôtre Dame was still called the Temple of Reason, and the movement spread from Paris to other large towns, sometimes supported by the 'deputies on mission,' occasionally restrained by them. . . . Before the anti-Christian movement ran its course it led to violent factional struggles within the

Jacobin party and was responsible for a long list of proscriptions. The faction which had organized the festival of liberty and the Worship of Reason was called Hébertist because its leading member was Hébert, assistant city solicitor and editor of the Père Duchesne."-H. E. Bourne, Revolutionary period in Europe, pp. 210-212.-See also DEISM; THEISM.

ATHEL, ATHELING, ATHELBONDE. See ETHEL, ETHELING.

ATHELBY. See ADEL, ADELING; ÆTHEL. ATHELNEY, a small district in the county of Somerset, England, at one time an island, famous as the retreat of Alfred the Great in 878-879, where he planned the overthrow of the Danes. ATHELSTANE, or Aethelstan (895-940), king of the West Saxons. Defeated the Danes and Celts at Brunanburgh 937. By marriages, brought England into close touch with the continent. See ENGLAND: 938.

ATHENA, also called by the Greeks Pallas Athene, and by the Romans Minerva, the goddess of knowledge, arts, sciences and righteous wars. She, together with Zeus and Apollo constituted a triad, regarded as the embodiment of all divine power. To her as the patron deity of Athens, the Acropolis was dedicated and the Parthenon erected. (See also ATHENS: B. C. 461431: General aspect of Periclean Athens.) Many other temples were built in her honor, notably at Ægine, Assus, and Syracuse. (See also TEMPLES: Stage of culture represented by temple architecture.) Among the most famous of the ancient representations of her were the colossal bronze statue on the Acropolis, known as Athena the Defender, and the ivory and gold statue in the Parthenon.

ATHENIAN CONSTITUTION. See ATHENS: B. C. 650-594.

ATHENIAN

CONTINENTAL LEAGUE, Fall of. See ATHENS: B. C. 447.

ATHENIAN EMPIRE: Formed after revolts of Allies. See ATHENS: B. C. 466-461; and EUROPE: Ancient: Greek civilization: Political development.

B. C. 1000-700.-Attica in the Mycenæan Age. -Unification of Attica with Athens the metropolis. "When recorded history begins, the story of Athens is the story of Attica, the inhabitants of Attica are Athenians. But Attica, like its neighbour Baotia and other countries of Greece, was once occupied by a number of independent states" (J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 163), "each having its own court-house . . . and magistrates... and uniting only under a central government in times of some pressing national danger. At times there was even war between these communes, as between the Eleusinians under Eumolpus and the Athenians under Erectheus; and, since some of the small independent states of early Greece subdued one another, a part of the unity of Attica may have been the result of conquest. But the main bond of union seems to have been

religion."-A. H. J. Greenidge, Handbook of Greek constitutional history, p. 125.-See also ATTICA. "Of all the lordships between Mount Cithaeron and Cape Sunium the two most important were those of Eleusis and Athens, severed from one another by the hill-chain of Aegaleos. It was upon Athens, the stronghold in the midst of the Cephisian plain, five miles from the sea, that destiny devolved the task of working out the unity of Attica. . . . The first Greeks who won the Pelasgic acropolis were probably the Cecropes, and, though their name was forgotten as the name of an independent people, it survived in another form. For the later Athenians were always ready to describe themselves as the sons of Cecrops. This Cecrops was numbered among the imaginary pre-historic kings of Athens; he was nothing more than the fabulous ancestor of the Cecropes.

But the time came when other Greek dwellers in Attica won the upper hand over the Cecropes, and brought with them the worship of Athena. It was a momentous day in the history of the land when the goddess, whose cult was already established in many other Attic places, took possession of the hill which was to be pre-eminently, and for all time, associated with her name. In the course of time the feeling of unity in Attica became so strong that all the smaller lordships, which formed parts of the large state, but still retained their separate political organisations, could be induced to surrender their home governments and merge themselves in a single community with a government centralised in the city of the Cephisian plain. . . . From this time forward she is no longer merely the supreme city of Attica. She is neither the head of a league of partly independent states, nor is she a despotic mistress of subject-communities. . . . She is the central city of an united state; and to the people of every village in Attica belong the same political rights as to the people of Athens herself. The man of Marathon or the man of Thoricus is no longer an Attic, he is an Athenian. It is generally supposed that the synoecism was the work of one of the kings [legend attributed it to Theseus]. It was undoubtedly the work of one man; but it is possible that it belongs to the period immediately succeeding the abolition of the royal power."-J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 163-166. See also DORIANS AND IONIANS; GREECE: Migrations of Hellenic tribes.

B. C. 753-650.-Transition from monarchy to aristocracy.-Magistrates and assembly.-"The transition from monarchy to aristocracy was gradual; and though no ancient writer informs us we may be sure that it was brought about by the council of nobles, who alone benefited by the change. [See also ARISTOCRACY.] It must therefore have been this body which, about the middle of the eighth century, reduced the tenure of the royal office to a single decade. Although the incumbent was still termed king, the monarchy in fact ceased, the supreme power passing to the council. At this point accordingly dates the beginning of the aristocracy (753). As the decennial kings proved incapable of efficient military leadership, the office of 'polemarch'-war archon -was instituted, probably to lead the army in the conflict with Eleusis. No long time afterward the Medontidae [a royal family] were deposed, and the royal office thrown open to all the nobles. Then, about 700, the office of archon was instituted with the function of caring for widows and orphans and their estates. As the decennial magistrates proved too strong and independent to serve the interests of the ruling power, all offices were made annual in 683-2; and at the same time the archon superseded the king as head of the state. In this way the government became in form as well as in fact a republic. In this year or shortly afterward were instituted the six thesmothetæ, 'that they might record the customary laws and keep them for the trial of offenders.' (Arist. Const. Ath. 3.) In the time of Solon the archon, king, polemarch and thesmothetæ were brought together under the name of archons. [See ARCHON.] The aristocracy was now at the summit of its power. The assembly of citizens, which had never been really important, fell into practical desuetude. The elective power resided in the Council, who 'called up men and on its own judgment assigned them according to their qualifications to the several offices for the year.' (Arist. Const. Ath. 8.) It supervised their administration, and watched rig

orously over the lives of the citizens, with power to punish for immoral as well as for lawless conduct. The members of this body were powerful lords, recruited annually from those who had worthily filled the nine magistracies described above."-G. W. Botsford, Hellenic history, ch. 6.

B. C. 700-565.-Beginnings of Athenian expansion.-Annexation of Eleusis (700) and the conquest of Salamis (570-565).-One important achievement of the aristocracy was the conquest of the little Eleusinian kingdom, bound in by Athens on one side and Megara on the other (700 B. C.) Before the middle of the sixth century Megara had developed into a formidable rival to Athens. Almost equidistant between these two states lay an island, Salamis, whose possession must decide the future history of both states. Therefore, "The Athenians sought to occupy Salamis, but all their efforts to gain a permanent footing failed, and they abandoned the attempt in despair. Years passed away. At length Solon saw that the favourable hour had come.

An intimate friend of Solon took part in the enterprise,-Pisistratus, son of Hippocrates. whose home and estates were near Brauron. He helped the expedition to a successful issue. Not only was the disputed island wrested from Megara, but he captured the port of Nisaea over against the island. But Salamis now became permanently annexed to Attica. The island was afterwards divided in lots among Athenian citizens, who were called cleruchs or 'lot-holders.' Salamis, unlike Eleusis, was not incorporated in Attica, though it was nearer Athens. . . . The conquest of Salamis was a decisive event for Athens. Her territory was now rounded off; she had complete command of the landlocked Eleucinian bay; it was she who now threatened Megara."-J. B. Bury, History of Greece, 190-192. -See also MEGARA..

B. C. 650-594.—Timocracy of the heavy infantry. Constitution.-Threatened by foreign conquest the Athenian nobles found it necessary to dopt the Spartan phalanx. Since their number was small they were compelled to take into the ranks of the phalanx all the commoners who were wealthy enough to provide a complete military equipment. With a view to determine who could afford to supply the necessary equipment, a general census was taken. The result was that these newly recruited men of wealth immediately began to take part in the government, and since political privileges were based on property, the government became a timocracy ("rule of the wealthy"). This occurred about 650 B. C., and after this date it became customary to divide the citizens into four census classes according to the productive value of their land. [See also LITURGIES.] It was not, however, until a later period of the history of Athens that the census classes became important. The chief features of the Athenian Constitution were as follows:

2. The King

(a) A priest.

(b) Judge in murder cases.

3. The Polemarch

(a) Commander of the army.

(b) Judge in cases affecting alien residents.

4. The six Tresmothetæ, 'legislators'

(a) Keepers of the laws and public documents.

(b) Judges in certain civil cases. "These nine magistrates sometimes acted as a board under the presidency of the Archon. "IV. The Councils

1. The Council (Boulé) of the Areopagus (a) Composed of retired archons; membership lifelong.

(b) As highest authority in the state it supervised the magistrates and the conduct of the citizens.

(c) As a court it tried wilful murder.
2. The Council (Boulé) of Four Hundred
and One

Representing the tribes and townships
(a) Assisted the magistrates in the gov-

ernment.

(b) Prepared decrees for presentation to the assembly. "V. The Assembly-Ecclesia

1. Composed of all those who could furnish a complete military equipment.

2. It elected magistrates and voted on questions brought before it by the Four Hundred and One.

"VI. Form of Government

As political rights were graded according to property assessments, the government was a timocracy.

"The above is an outline of the Athenian Constitution. Occasionally parts of it were changed and new features added, but it was never displaced by a new constitution. In brief Athens had but one constitution."-G. W. Botsford, History of the ancient world, p. 127.

B. C. 624-621.-Draco, the law-giver, and his reforms. Among the common people "one chief cause of complaint was that they alone (the nobles) knew the law and administered it according to their own will. Hence, the demand arose for the publication of the law. It was secured in a truly Greek fashion. One man was chosen, the best man in the state, to whom all power was given that he might prepare, publish, and administer a code of law which should be binding upon the people. Thus, almost every Greek state of the time had its law-giver, or in later times traced its law-code back to some great man who was thought to be its author." -G. S. Goodspeed, History of the ancient world, P. 104-105. "The Athenians accordingly appointed Draco as their law-giver (about 624). "His legislation gave Athens written provisions for setthing business and other disputes, thus limiting the power of magistrates in recognizing cases, conducting trials and imposing penalties. The most durable of these drew a noteworthy distinction between the penalty for different sorts of murder. Heretofore, all killing had been murder and its penalty death at the hands of the relatives of the dead man. Now, accidental or justifiable homicide was distinguished in its punishment from wilful murder. As Draco's laws were chiefly a collection of the old customs of the land, they seemed to the later Athenians exceedingly severe and were said to have been 'written in blood.'"-Ibid., p. 117.-"Draco's laws were very

harsh, death being the punishment for many minor offences such as stealing, and enslavement being the punishment of a person who got in debt and could not pay the debt when due. Although the people had made some progress in obtaining a written law, they found that they were not much better off, because the laws were so severe."-R. L. Ashley, Ancient civilization, p.

116.

B. C. 612-595.-Conspiracy of Cylon.-Banishment of the Alcmæonidæ.-The first attempt at Athens to overturn the oligarchical government and establish a personal tyranny was made, 612 B. C., by Cylon (Kylon), a patrician, son-in-law of the tyrant of Megara, who was encouraged and helped in his undertaking by the latter. The conspiracy failed miserably. The partisans of Cylon, blockaded in the acropolis, were forced to surrender; but they placed themselves under the protection of the goddess Minerva and were promised their lives. More effectually to retain the protection of the goddess until their escape was effected, they attached a cord to her altar and held it in their hands as they passed out through the midst of their enemies. Unhappily the cord broke, and the archon Megacles at once declared that the safeguard of Minerva was withdrawn from them, whereupon they were massacred without mercy, even though they fled to the neighboring altars and clung to them. The treachery and bad faith of this cruel deed does not seem to have disturbed the Athenian people, but the sacrilege involved in it caused horror and fear when they had had time to reflect upon it. Megacles and his whole family-the Alcmæonidæ as they were called, from the name of one of their ancestors -were held accountable for the affront to the gods and were considered polluted and accursed. Every public calamity was ascribed to their sin, and at length, after a solemn trial, they were banished from the city (about 596 or 595 B. C.), while the dead of the family were disinterred and cast out. The agitations of this affair exercised an important influence on the course of events, which opened the way for Solon and his constitutional reforms.-C. Thirlwall, History of Greece, ch. 11-See also DELPHI.

ALSO IN: G. Grote, History of Greece, pt. 2,

ch. 10. B. C. 600-300.-Seclusion of women. See WOMEN'S RIGHTS: B. C. 600-300.

B. C. 6th century.-Relations with Argos. See ARGOS, ARGOLIS, ARGIVES.

B. C. 594.-Constitution and reforms of Solon. -"The necessity for drastic reform was as great as before and in 594 or 593 B. C., Solon was appointed law-maker, with full power to relieve the social distress and revise the constitution. His social reforms cancelled debts and thus cleared the land from mortgages and set free debtors from selfdom; others, who had been sold as slaves, he ransomed from abroad, and he enacted that for the future no one should be allowed to pledge his liberty."-L. Whibley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, p. 355.-See also DEBT, LAWS CONCERNING: Ancient Greek.-"He fixed a limit for the measure of land which could be owned by a single person, so as to prevent the growth of dangerously large estates. And he forbade the exportations of Attic products, except oil. For it had been found that so much corn was carried to foreign markets, where the prices were higher, that an insufficient supply remained for the population of Attica. It is to be observed that at this time the Athenians had not yet begun to import Pontic corn."-J. B. Bury, History of Greece, p. 182."Solon then repealed the laws of Draco and pro

ATHENS, B. C. 560-510

ceeded to reconstruct the constitution. He divided the citizens into four property classes, based on the produce of corn, oil, or wine from their land. Only members of the first three classes were eligible for offices of state, only members of the first class for the highest offices."L. Whibley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, p. 355.-"He laid the foundation of the future Athenian democracy by extending the franchise to the Thetes (literally, 'hirelings') the lowest of the four classes, by instituting the Heliaea (q. v.), or popular courts of justice, in which every citizen in turn could take his place among the dicasts (judges or jurymen), and by introducing election by lot. Moreover, he formed a new council (Boulé) of 400 members chosen from the whole people except the Thetes, and transferred to this council from the Areopagus the work of preparing measures to be submitted to the Ecclesia."-H. B. Cotterill, Ancient Greece, Pp. 139-140.-"The Assembly had the decision of war and peace, and perhaps of some other important questions. Solon introduced the right of appeal from the sentence of the judicial magistrates to the law court, and this was regarded as his most important democratic institution. The Council of the Areopagus (q. v.) was left in possession of its extensive power to watch over the laws and the constitution, to supervise the administration and to exercise a censorship over the citizens."-L. Whibley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, p. 355.-"Solon's laws were written or inscribed on tablets or pillars, which revolved on a pivot, and were first kept in the Acropolis, but later, by the advice of Ephialtes, were placed in the Agora." [Compare Constitution of the Timocracy: Athens, 650-594 B. C.].H. B. Cotterill, History of Greece, p. 140.-See also PRYTANES.

B. C. 560-510.-The tyranny.-Reforms and public works under Pisistratus and his sons. "When Solon had made his laws he went abroad for ten years, so as to give his constitution a fair run. When he returned he found that everything was once more in confusion. As usual the trouble was economic. . . . The village population was unhappy and restless. The peasants had been put back on their holdings and plied with good advice as to how to manage their vines and olive trees; but they had no capital to go on with and of course they could not borrow. The craftsmen and small traders, whose interests were bound up with theirs, were equally clamorous. Discontent grew more and more fierce, till finally the state was openly divided into three hostile parties, each prepared to fight for its own economic and territorial interests. There were the men of the plain, with their city interests. There were the men of the shore, that is, the population living in the country villages and small ports of South-Eastern Attica, from the settlements behind Hymettus down to Sunium. Thirdly, there were the men of the mountains, the poorer peasants and shepherds and woodcutters and charcoal-burners from the rough region of northern Attica. It seemed for a moment as if Theseus had attempted too much in trying to make a united nation out of a territory larger than that of any other Greek City State. But fortunately for Athens 'a man arose in Israel.' The Mountaineers had at their head a leader, Pisistratus, who was not only a friend of the poor but also a noted soldier and a man of large private means and influential connections He succeeded, after some vicissitudes, in making his party supreme in the State, as he had already made himself supreme in his party. . . . But Pisistratus's most

ATHENS, B. C. 509-506

durable achievement was his settlement of the economic difficulties. He solved them once and for all by advancing capital out of his private fortune to the poorer landowners, largely of course his own political supporters. Once they had margin enough to keep them through lean years, or while their trees were growing to maturity, their troubles were at an end. There is no more land question in Attica till the Spartans came and ruined the cultivation one hundred and fifty years later."-A. E. Zimmern, Greek commonwealth, pp. 183-184.-"It is difficult to estimate his services to Athens, for later generations did their utmost to deny and conceal them, giving some of his achievements to Solon and some to Theseus, and some even to Erechtheus. He [Pisistratus} founded an early Athenian empire. He won the island of Salamis from Megara, and until she possessed Salamis, Athens had no open road to the sea. [See also MEGARA.] Later Athenians ascribed this feat to Solon. He regained Sigeum, on the Troad, after a war with Mytilene. He established the elder Miltiades as tyrant of the Thracian Chersonese. In these movements his policy was obviously to open up trade with the Black Sea, the granary of Greece. He extended olive-culture in Attica. He probably began to work the silver mines at Laurium, which were thenceforth the principal source of Athenian revenue. He made the unfree tillers of the soil into peasant proprietors by confiscating the estates of his noble opponents. He was allied with Sparta and Argos, Thebes and Thessaly and Naxos. He introduced a police armed with bows into the city of Athens. He probably did much of what Theseus is supposed to have done in synoecising Athens that is, transforming Attica from a number of villages with a capital into a city-state with surrounding territory. We know that he sent judges on circuit round the country demes. The other indications are that Pisistratus pulled down the city wall in order that she might be able to expand, that he constructed a proper water-supply, and that he fostered the worship of the Olympian or city deities. At the same time he fostered agriculture, and tried to get the poor of Athens back to the land."-J. C. Stobart, Glory that was Greece, pp. 110-111.-See also CERAMICUS. "Tyranny lasted, with two interruptions, until 510. After his second restoration Pisistratus established his power and ruled with a wise moderation. The constitution was not changed, but the tyrant took care that the chief offices should be held by his friends. He relied on the support of poets for his dynasty, and extended the power of Athens in the Aegean. Hippias succeeded his father in 527, and after the assassination of Hipparchus became a harsh and suspicious despot. until the Alcmaeonidæ, who had been exiled by Pisistratus, gained the support of Sparta and overthrew the tyranny."-L. Whibley, ed., Companion to Greek studies, p. 356.

B. C. 509-506.-Hostile undertakings of Cleomenes and Sparta.-Help solicited from the Persian king.-Subjection refused.-Failure of Spartan schemes to restore tyranny.-Protest of the Corinthians. Successful war with Thebes and Chalcis.-"With Sparta it was obvious that the Athenians now had a deadly quarrel. and on the other side they knew that Hippias was seeking to precipitate on them the power of the Persian king. It seemed therefore to be a matter of stern necessity to anticipate the intrigues of their banished tyrant; and the Athenians accordingly sent ambassadors to Sardeis to make an independent alliance with the Persian despot. The envoys, on being brought into the presence ai