1896-1898 1896.-Hydrographical survey of the Danish waters of Greenland and Iceland. 1896.-Hansen sent to Siberia to look for traces of Nansen. 1896.-Return of Dr. Nansen from voyage begun in 1893. After skirting the coast of Siberia almost to the Lena delta, the Fram was enclosed by the ice and drifted with it north and northwest. On March 14, 1895, in 84° 4′ N. lat., 102° E. long., Nansen and Johansen left the Fram and pushed northward with dogs and sledges across an ice floe till they reached lat. 86° 13.6', at about 95° W. long., on April 8, within 261 statute miles of the pole. With great difficulty they made their way to Franz Josef Land, where they wintered, and in June met explorer Jackson. Returning on the Jackson supply steamer Windward, they reached Vardö Aug. 13. The Fram drifted to lat. 85° 57′ N., 66° E. long., then southwestward, reaching Tromso Aug. 20, 1896. Nansen demonstrated the existence of a polar sea of great depth, comparatively warm below the surface, apparently with few islands; though he did not find the transpolar current he sought. 1896.-Spitsbergen crossed for the first time, by Sir W. Martin Conway and party. 1896.-Many parties visit the northern coast of Norway and Nova Zembla to view the total eclipse of the sun, Aug. 8-9. 1896.-Expedition sent by Russian Hydrographic Department to find site for a sealers' refuge in Nova Zembla. Bielusha bay, on the Southwest coast, chosen. 1897.-Expedition sent by Canadian government to investigate Hudson bay and strait as a route to Central Canada. Passage found to be navigable for at least sixteen weeks each summer. 1897.-Seventh Peary expedition to Greenland. Accompanied by parties for scientific research. Preliminary arrangements made with the Eskimos for the expedition of 1898, and food-stations established. Relics of Greely's expedition found on cape Sabine, and the great meteorite at cape York brought away at last. 1897.-Second expedition of Sir Martin Conway for the exploration of Spitsbergen. 1897.-A summer resort established on west Coast of Spitsbergen, with regular steamer service for tourists during July and August. 1897.-Cruise of Mr. Arnold Pike and Sir Savile Crossley among the islands east of Spitsbergen. 1897.-Cruise of Mr. Pearson and Lieut. Feilden in the Laura in the Kara sea and along the east coast of Nova Zembla, for the purpose of studying the natural history of the region. 1897.-Expedition of F. W. L. Popham with a fleet of steamers through Yugor straits to the Yenisei. 1897.-Hydrological and commercial expedition, comprising seven steamers, under Rear-Admiral Makaroff, sent by the Russian government to the north Siberian sea. 1897.-Balloon voyage of Salomon August Andrée and two companions, Mr. Strindberg and Mr. Fraenkel, starting from Danes' island, north of Spitsbergen, in the hope of being carried to the Pole. Four buoys from the balloon have been found. The first, found in Norway in June, 1899, and containing a note from Andrée, was thrown out eight hours after his departure. The "North Pole buoy," to be dropped when the Pole was passed, was found empty on the north side of King Charles Island, north-east of Spitzbergen, Sept. 11, 1899. A third buoy, also empty, was found on the west coast of Iceland July 17, 1900. Another, reported from Norway, Aug. 31, 1900, contained a note showing that the buoy was thrown out at IO P. M., July 11, 1897, at an altitude of 250 metres (820 ft.), moving N. 45 E., with splendid weather. Many search expeditions, some equipped at great expense, have returned unsuccessful. In spite of many rumors nothing definite is known of the fate of any of the party. One message from Andrée was brought back by a carrier pigeon. It was dated July 13, 12.30 P. M., in lat. 82° 2′, long. 12° 5' E., and stated that the balloon was moving eastward. 1897.-New islands on the southern coast of Franz Josef Land discovered by Capt. Robertson of the Dundee whaler Balana, 1897. Return of Jackson-Harmsworthy expedition from three years' exploration of Franz Josef Land and the region north of it. Franz Josef Land was resolved into a group of islands and almost entirely mapped. Small parties journeying northward over the ice, establishing depots of supplies, the most northern in latitude 81° 21', discovered and named Victoria sea, the most northern open sea in the world. 1897-1899.-Journey of Andrew J. Stone through the Canadian Rockies, down Mackenzie river and along the arctic coast, in search of rare mammals and information concerning the native tribes. Mr. Stone often had only one companion. He traveled rapidly, in one period of five months covering 3,000 miles of arctic coast and mountains, between 70° and 72° N. lat. and between 1172° and 140° W. long. 1898.-Expedition of Dr. K. J. V. Steenstrup to Greenland to study the glaciers of Disco island. 1898. Completion by Dr. Thoroddsen of his systematic exploration of Iceland, begun in 1881. 1898. Spitsbergen circumnavigated and surveyed by Dr. A. G. Nathorst. Coast mapped and important scientific observations made. 1898.-Pendulum observations made in Spitsbergen by Prof. J. H. Gore, with instruments of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey, for the determination of the force of gravity in that latitude. 1898. Cruise of Prince Albert of Monaco, on coast of Spitsbergen, for the purpose of making scientific observations. 1898. Some claim to Spitsbergen made by Russia. Never before claimed by any nation. 1898.-German arctic expedition under Theodor Lerner to the islands east of Spitsbergen, for scientific purposes and to obtain news of Andrée if possible. 1898.-Andrée search expedition under J. Stadling sent to the Lena delta, the mouth of the Yenisei and the islands of New Siberia by the Swedish Anthropological and Geographical Society. 1898-1899.-Reconnoitring expedition by Danish party under Lieut. G. C. Amdrup, to east coast of Greenland. Coast explored and mapped from Angmagssalik, 6534° N. lat., to 67° 22'. Remains of a small extinct Eskimo settlement found. 1898-1899.-Second attempt by Walter Wellman to reach the North Pole. Wintered in Franz Josef Land, establishing an outpost, called Fort McKinley, in lat. 81° N. In February Mr. Wellman, with three companions. started northward and seemed likely to succeed in their undertaking, but a serious accident befalling Mr. Wellman, and an icequake destroying many dogs and sledges, a hurried return to headquarters was necessary. Here important scientific observations were made. The 82d parallel was reached by the explorer. 1898. Carefully planned expedition of Lieut. Peary, purposing to advance toward the pole by 1898-1910 west coast of Greenland, establishing food stations and depending upon picked Eskimos for coöperation with his small party. In the last dash for the pole, supply sledges to be sent back as emptied, and the returning explorer, with two companions only, to be met by a relief party of Eskimos. The Windward was presented by Mr. Harmsworth for this expedition. Lieut. Peary was disabled for several weeks in 1898-9 by severe frost-bites, causing the loss of seven toes. The Greely records were found at Fort Conger and sent back by the annual supply vessel. Sextant and record of the Nares expedition found and sent back; presented by Lieut. Peary to the Lords of the Admiralty of Great Britain and placed in the museum of the Royal Naval College at Greenwich. Vessel sent to Greenland each summer to carry supplies and bring back letters, carrying also small parties of explorers, scientists, university students and hunters, to be left at various points and picked up by the vessel on its return. 1898-.-Expedition of Capt. Sverdrup to northern Greenland-Lieut. Peary's especial field. Having planned a polar expedition similar to Peary's he sailed up the west coast, but the Fram was frozen in near cape Sabine. Sverdrup therefore explored the western part of Ellesmere Land, then sailed again in an attempt to round the northern coast of Greenland. 1899. International conference held at Stockholm in June recommended a program for hydrographical and biological work in the northern parts of the Atlantic ocean, the North sea, the Baltic, and adjoining seas. 1899-.-Scientific expedition of Edward Bay, a Dane, to Melville bay, Greenland. 1899. Swedish expedition under Dr. A. G. Nathorst to search for Andrée in eastern Greenland. Valuable observations made and fjord systems of King Oscar fjord and Kaiser Franz Josef fjord mapped. 1899. Explorations in Iceland by F. W. W. Howell and party. 1899. Hydrographic surveys on the coasts of Iceland and the Faroe islands by MM. Holm and Hammer in the Danish guard-ship Diana. 1899. Joint Russian and Swedish expedition to Spitsbergen, for the measurement of a degree of the meridian. Owing to the condition of the ice, the northern and southern surveying parties unable to connect their work. 1899.-Explorations in Spitsbergen by the Prince of Monaco, with a scientific staff. 1899. Successful experimental voyage of the Russian Vice-Admiral Makaroff in his ice-breaking steamer, the Yermak, north of Spitsbergen. 1899.-Russian government expedition, to cost £5,400, to explore northern shores of Siberia to mouths of the Ob and Yenisei. 1899-1900.-Arctic expedition of the Duke of the Abruzzi. His ship, the Stella Polare, was left at Crown Prince Rudolf Land during the winter. The Duke became incapacitated by a fall and by the loss of two joints from the fingers of his left hand, incurably frost-bitten; but a small party under Capt. Cagni pushed northward till provisions were exhausted. Nansen's record was beaten, the Italian party reaching lat. 86° 33', at about 56° E. long. No land was found north or northwest of Spitsbergen. Three men were lost from Cagni's party. 1899-.-Exploration of Ellesmere Land, Greenland, by Dr. Robert Stein, of the United States Geological Survey, Dr. Leopold Kann of Cornell, and Samuel Warmbath of Harvard, who took passage in the Peary supply ship Diana, trusting to chance for conveyance home. Their totally inadequate outfit was generously augmented by Peary's friends of the Diana. Dr. Kann returned in 1900, leaving Dr. Stein. 1900. Seward peninsula, the most westward extension of Alaska, explored and surveyed by five government expeditions. 1900.-Exploration of the interior of northern Labrador by a party from Harvard university. Soundings along the coast by schooner Brave. 1900.-Second Danish expedition under Lieut. Amdrup to east Greenland, completing the work of 1898-9 by mapping the coast between 67° 20' N. and cape Gladstone, about 70° N., and making valuable scientific collections.. 1900.-Swedish expedition, under Gustav Kolthoff, to eastern Greenland, for study of the arctic fauna. 1900. Swedish scientific expedition of Prof. G. Kolthoff to Spitzbergen and Greenland. 1900.-Exploration of Spitsbergen by a Russian expedition under Knipovich. 1900.-Russian expedition to east coast of Nova Zembla by Lieut. Borissoff to complete survey of the islands. 1900-.-Dr. Nansen's expedition under the leadership of Dr. J. Hjort, for the physical and biological examination of the sea between Norway, Iceland, Jan Mayen and Spitsbergen.-See also SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1900-.-German expedition, under Capt. Bade, to explore East Spitsbergen, King Charles' Land and Franz Josef Land, and to look for traces of Andrée. 1900-.-Attempt of a German, Capt. Bauendahl, to reach the North Pole, leaving his vessel in the ice north of Spitsbergen and traveling over the ice with provisions for two years, weighing ten tons. 1900-.-Scientific expedition of Baron E. von Toll to the unexplored Sannikoff Land, sighted in 1805 from the northern coast islands of New Siberia. Preceded by a party which established food depots at various places months before. 1901. Three exploring parties sent to Alaska by the United States Geological Survey. 1901. Expedition sent by the Duke of the Abruzzi to Franz Josef Land to search for the three men lost from his party in 1900. 1901. Roald Amundsen's investigation of the oceanographic conditions around Spitsbergen. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1901.-North polar expedition under Mr. Evelyn B. Baldwin of the United States Weather Bureau; splendidly equipped by Mr. Wm. Ziegler of New York. 1903-1905.-Expedition under Anthony Fiala, reaching a latitude 82° 13'. 1903.-Amundson's voyage through the northwest passage. 1905. Explorations of the Belgica under Gerlache. 1906.-Prince of Monaco's survey of the western part of Spitsbergen. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921 1906-1907.-Erichsen and Hagen-Hagen's survey of Greenland which ended in a tragedy. 1907.-Expedition under Captain Isachsen and the mapping of northwestern Spitsbergen. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1907-1909.-Dr. Cook's attempt to reach the Pole. 1908. Botanical survey of the fiord region in West Spitsbergen under Mrs. Hanna Resvoll-Holmsen. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1910.-Expedition to Spitsbergen under Captain Isachsen. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1910-1911.-Hantzsch, the first European to cross Baffinland. 1911-1918. Topographical and geographical surveys of Spitsbergen made under Adolf Hoel and Captains Arve Staxrud and Sverre Rövig. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1912.-Nansen's investigation of the waters on the northern and western coasts of Spitsbergen. See SPITSBERGEN: 1906-1921. 1912.-Brussiloff's voyage north, outcome never known. 1912.-Expedition under Lieutenant Schröder Stranz. 1913-1918.-Stefansson expedition, its great importance in arctic explorations. 1917-1918.-Explorations along the arctic coast of Alaska by Archdeacon Stuck. On 1917.-Rasmussen's surveys in the Arctic. ARDAHAN, a fortified town of Russian Armenia, ceded to Russia by Turkey in 1878. the outbreak of war between Turkey and Russia in the fall of 1914 a Turkish army was organized for the invasion of the Russian Caucasus with Ardahan as an immediate objective. The city was taken by Enver Pasha, January 1, 1915, but was quickly lost in the subsequent defeat of his troops. It was successively in the hands of Turks, Armenians and Bolsheviki in 1918 and 1919. ARDASHIR, the modern form for Artaxerxes, the name of several Persian rulers. ARDEN, Forest of, the largest forest in early Britain, which covered the greater part of modern Warwickshire and "of which Shakespeare's Arden became the dwindled representative."-J. R. Green, Making of England, ch. 7. ARDENNES, Forest of.-"In Caesar's time there were in [Gaul] very extensive forests, the largest of which was the Arduenna (Ardennes), which extended from the banks of the lower Rhine probably as far as the shores of the North Sea."G. Long, Decline of the Roman republic, v. 3, ch. 22.-"Ardennes is the name of one of the northern French departments which contains a part of the forest Ardennes. Another part is in Luxemburg and Belgium. The old Celtic name exists in England in the Arden of Warwickshire."Ibid., v. 4, ch. 14.-This wild hilly region extending over parts of Belgium and France slopes gradually towards the plains of Flanders. The average height of these hills is about 1600 feet although Mt. Saint-Hubert rises to an altitude of 2100. Within this section are some of the finest forests of Europe where gently undulating areas are densely covered with oak and beech. The most important river flowing through the Ardennes is the Meuse which has cut a deep channel with precipitous walls 600 feet high in some places. Coal and iron mines lie in the northwest, and cattle and sheep are extensively raised. The district, both in Belgium and in France, was the scene of severe fighting (between the French and the Germans) in the first weeks of the World War. See WORLD WAR: 1914: I. Western front: j. ARDESH, Caucasus region: Capture by Russians (1916). See WORLD WAR: 1916: VI. Turkish theater: d, 1. ARDGLASS ("Green Height"), a small picturesque town on the Irish coast between Kingston mole and Belfast bay in County Down. The population in 1901 was 501. The harbor was one of importance from earliest times. After the Norman invasion it "was the outlet for the trade of the rich agricultural and wool-producing lands of Down, Tyrone, and Armagh, and traffic was carried on in wines, cloth, kerseys, all kinds of fish, wool, and tallow. . . . With the revival of Irish life in the fourteenth century, and the gatherings of English merchants to Irish fairs, commerce increased and flourished [see COMMERCE: 14th century]. . . . It is said that a trading company with a grant from Henry IV built the famous 'New Works."-A. S. Green, Old Irish World, p. 137.Wars of the English and Irish raged around this harbor and brought devastation to the town (see IRELAND: 1559-1603). . . . "In the course of the gloomy years that followed the old house fell into decay. [In June, 1911] the whole derelict property, long deserted by its landlords, both land and village, was sold for the benefit of English mortgagees and bought by local people."-Ibid., p. 149. ARDRI, or Ardrigh, "over kings" of Ireland. See IRELAND, 1014; TUATH. ARDSCUL, Battle near. See IRELAND: 1314 1318. ARDSHIR. See ARDASHIR. AREANS. See MEDIA AND THE MEDES. ARECUNAS. See CARIBS: Their kindred. AREIOS. See ARIA. The ARELATE. The ancient name of Arles. territory covered by the old kingdom of Arles is sometimes called the Arelate. See BURGUNDY: 1127-1378, and SALYES. ARENA, "in an amphitheatre the flat, open space enclosed by the seats for spectators and reserved for gladiatorial combats or other spectacles; so called because spread with sand. Hence, any level space wholly or partly surrounded by seats for athletic contests, combats, or sports."-R. Sturgis, Dictionary of architecture and building. ARENGO (Arringo), general assembly. See SAN MARINO, REPUBLIC OF. ARENSKY, Anton Stephanovich (1861-1906), distinguished Russian composer. In 1883 he became professor of composition at the Imperial Conservatory in Moscow and in 1895 succeeded Balakirev as conductor of the Imperial Court Chorus at St. Petersburg. AREOPAGITICA (1644), a pamphlet by Milton, protesting against government supervision and control of literature; considered his greatest prose work. See CENSORSHIP: England; PRINTING AND THE PRESS: 1644. AREOPAGUS.-"Whoever [in ancient Athens] was suspected of having blood upon his hands had to abstain from approaching the common altars of the land. Accordingly, for the purpose of judgments concerning the guilt of blood, choice had been made of the barren, rocky height which lies opposite the ascent to the citadel. It was dedicated to Ares, who was said to have been the first who was ever judged here for the guilt of blood; and to the Erinyes, the dark powers of the guilt-stained conscience. Here, instead of a single judge, a college of twelve men of proved integrity conducted the trial. If the accused had an equal number of votes for and against him, he was acquitted. The court on the hill of Ares is one of the most ancient institutions of Athens, and none achieved for the city an earlier or more widely-spread recognition."-E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 2, ch. 2. "The Areopagus, or, as it was interpreted by an ancient legend, Mars' Hill, was an eminence on the western side of the Acropolis, which from time immemorial had been the seat of a highly revered court of criminal justice. It took cognizance of charges of wilful murder, maiming, poisoning and arson. Its forms and modes of proceeding were peculiarly rigid and solemn. It was held in the open air, perhaps that the judges might not be polluted by sitting under the same roof with the criminals. . . . The venerable character of the court seems to have determined Solon to apply it |