shown more in detail in the illustration of a house front at Heidelberg. There is a certain picturesqueness about it, but after all it is a kind of nursery architecture, like children building with toy bricks, that no French architect of the Renaissance would have descended to. Among German buildings which exhibit something of the refinement and sobriety of the Italian and French Renaissance a favourable example is the Gymnasium in the Bank Platz at Brunswick (1592) in which square-headed mullioned windows of the Francis I. type are grouped in pairs, with a niche and a statue between each pair; and one may mention also the Rathaus at Augsburg (1615), a plain building with pedimented windows, somewhat recalling the style of the Farnese Palace. But the general tendency of German Renaissance is to eccentricity and exuberance of ornamental detail, the unquestionable vigour of which hardly compensates for its want of refinement."-H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 487-494.

Spain. "In Spain, as in France and other countries outside of Italy, there was a mingling of Italian forms with those already existing in the native medieval architecture. Here, however, the medieval style itself included a large admixture of Moorish forms. Moriscoes, until their expulsion in 1610, remained prominent among artificers, and thus had their influence on the Renaissance forms

as well Thus arose the Plateresque or silversmith's style, so called from the intricate and delicate ornament abounding in it. This, which corresponds with the early Renaissance, extended from about 1500 to 1560. A notable example is the Town Hall at Seville, built in 1527-32. Here there is an application of engaged orders in two stories which in its main lines is thoroughly grammatical, but which has pilasters, columns, window enframements, and panels alike covered with the richest arabesques and candelabra-like forms. Even more characteristic in its mode of composition is the doorway of the University at Salamanca. Here the ornament is massed in a great panel above the opening, which contrasts with the broad neighboring surfaces of unbroken masonry. Other notable features of style are open arcaded loggias which often terminate a façade, as in the Casa de Monterey at Salamanca (1530), and the courts or patios surrounded by galleries which are found in all important buildings. Forms like those of the High Renaissance in Italy first appeared in the palace begun for Charles V. in the Alhambra (1527), by Pedro Machuca. This building is square in plan with a circular colonnaded court having superposed orders, Doric and Ionic. In purity and classical quality the building holds its own with contemporary monuments of Italy. . . . The conquest of the Indies made Spain, by the middle of the sixteenth century, the greatest power in Europe. Philip II. gave expression to this power by the building of the Escurial (1563-84), comprising a votive church and mausoleum, monastery, and palace, with every needful dependency for the service of both church and state. Its building lay chiefly in the hands of Juan de Herrera (1530-97), whose work, severely academic in its forms, established the post-Renaissance tendencies in Spain. In the Patio of the Evangelists, to be sure, he employed the Roman arch order with equal bays and unbroken entablatures, but elsewhere the membering abounds in the complex grouping of supports, the breaking of horizontal members, the uniting of interior spaces by penetrating vaults, and the multiplication of aspects in perspective by the combination of dome and towers. Herrera's sobriety was soon superseded by baroque freedom,

which ultimately in the hands of José Churriguera (1650-1723) became the boldest license. The national traditions of the Plateresque were reflected in the Churrigueresque' style, which paid less attention to the creation of new forms of plan and space than to the luxuriant elaboration of detail. It reached its fullest development in the great portals and altar-pieces, such as the high altar of the church of El Salvador in Seville. The accession of the Bourbons in 1714, which marked the end of Spanish domination in politics, brought also a subordination of Spanish tendencies in art. palaces of the new rulers at La Granja and Madrid imitated not only the worldliness of Versailles but its architectural formalism. The baroque tendency, which comported so well with national sympathies, persisted nevertheless, now creating novel forms of interior space, and still filling the framework of the orders with an exuberance of ornament."-F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 387-388, 420-422.

The

England.-"Gothic architecture endured longer in England than elsewhere, and took a new lease of life under the name of Tudor Style (1485-1558). To this transitional style belong the Royal Chapels, St. George's at Windsor and Henry VII.'s Chapel, Westminster Abbey, with their unique system of fan-vaulting. Hampton Court Palace is a charming example of the Tudor Style as applied to domestic architecture. Renaissance architecture only flournished in the time of Charles I., when it was represented principally by Inigo Jones (1572-1662), the author of the beautiful Banqueting Hall of Whitehall, London, and by Christopher Wren (1632-1723), the architect of the vast church of St. Paul's, a building inspired by St. Peter's at Rome, though not copied from it."-S. Reinach, Apollo, p. 142.

MODERN

In

General tendencies.-Our discussion of modern architecture is necessarily diverse and incomplete. Any critical evaluation must be regarded rather as a proposition for debate than as a final dictum. "Although the kaleidoscopic interplay of forces makes it difficult to generalize regarding the architectural characteristics of the period, they may be conceived broadly as the result of a synthesis of retrospective and progressive tendencies, which exist side by side, not unlike the academic and baroque tendencies in the previous period. matters of form and detail it is the newly-won historical understanding of previous styles which has been chiefly influential resulting in a series of attempted revivals followed by a season of eclecticism. In matters of plan and construction, however, the growth of material civilization and the development of new forms of government and commerce have produced a multitude of novel types of buildings as well as constant changes in the form and importance of the old types, making every supposed revival unconsciously a new creation. Finally there has begun a conscious movement to give the new functional types and structural systems an expression that shall also be novel and entirely characteristic."-F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 460-461.

Belgium.-"Belgium has produced, in the Law Courts at Brussels, by Poelaert (1816-1879), a building which in the Classic revival period stands almost alone as an attempt to use Classic materials in a free and original spirit both of composition and detail. It is not altogether satisfactory; there is a want of unity of design as a whole, and a want of scholarly character in a class of

detail in which we seem to require that character; but it is a building which gives evidence of architectural genius."-H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, p. 541.

England. "The early part of the [19th] century was marked by a Greek revival; a revulsion from the austere and rather prim simplicity to which the Renaissance had been reduced in the Georgian era, when hardly anything of Renaissance architecture was left except the Classical cornice and the symmetrical arrangement of windows. 'Back to Greece,' was the cry, without any consideration as to whether the climate of England and the conditions of modern life were suitable to Greek architecture; and one of the earliest results was the formation (1822) of the steeple of St. Pancras' church by Inwood's simple process of putting imitations of two small Greek buildings one on the top of the other, above a main portico of Ionic columns. Sir John Soane's (1753-1837) earlier treatment of the Bank of England was much better than this; having to provide for a low building with all the windows opening on the interior courtyard, the employment of a large one-story order as a means of giving decorative effect to these blind walls was not a bad idea; and at all events the building looks like a bank, and could hardly be taken for anything else. Then we had Wilkins's National Gallery and University College, both with admirable details but rather weak in general effect. . . . The great building of the Greek revival is St. George's Hall at Liverpool, by Elmes (1814-1847). . . . St. George's Hall, Greek externally and Roman in the interior of its great hall, is a noble conception, and contains moreover a certain originality in portions of the exterior, which may be described as Egyptian motifs translated into Greek form; it is true that the interior is very badly planned for its purposes, and the corridors lamentably deficient in light; but in those days, and in Elmes's mind certainly, that was a matter of quite secondary consequence provided that a grand architectural effect were obtained; and perhaps, for architecture, that extreme is better than the opposite extreme of ultra-utilitarianism. . . The Gothic revival in England, a little before the middle of the century, was more or less acted on by an ecclesiastical or religious revival-at all events the architectural and religious movements went hand in hand, and the result was a widespread erection of churches in imitation of those of the mediæval period, and a drastic restoration of the cathedrals; in both classes of operation Sir Gilbert Scott (1811-1878) was the largest operator. ... His churches, it must be admitted, are quite uninteresting now; the stamp of imitation Gothic is over them all. Pugin (1812-1852), that impassioned modern mediævalist, was also a leading influence at the outset of the Gothic revival, and had the faculty of imparting a great impression of height and scale to the interiors of his plastered churches with their 'half-baked chalk rosettes,' as Bishop Blougram expressed it. Street's (18241881) churches have more individual character than Scott's, and Butterfield's (1814-1000) still more so; perhaps his All Saints', Margaret Street, is the one Gothic revival church which is still as interesting, externally at least, as when it was built. ... The greatest modern Gothic building in England, or in the world, the Houses of Parliament, stands apart, as owing its style to influences outside of the Gothic revival movement, which, in fact, it rather preceded The Tudor style appears to have been dictated to the architect mainly for historical reasons, as a typical English style; perhaps also owing to the proximity of Henry VII.'s

chapel. Sir Charles Barry . . . has the merit of having produced, though working in a style forced upon him and with which he was not in sympathy, one of the grandest and most picturesque groups of architecture in the world, based on a plan so fine and effective that it has been copied again and again in buildings for a similar purpose, notably in the Budapest Parliament House, which is practically a reproduction of Barry's plan... Since the collapse of the Gothic revival, English architecture has taken a turn towards greater freedom of design, and a tendency once more to the employment of Renaissance materials and suggestions, without too great deference to precedent Much may be hoped from this new movement in English architecture."-Ibid., pp. 526-533.

France. "France has had too much of the sense of tradition in architecture to be taken captive by revivals. There is the great modern Gothic church of Ste. Clotilde at Paris, about the middle of the century, but there has been no Gothic revival on a large scale in France. There was, under the first empire, a certain tendency to a Greek, or we should perhaps rather say a Roman, revival, illustrated in such columned structures as the Bourse and the Madeleine, by Brongniart and Vignon respectively; and the stupendous Arc de l'Étoile [see also ARC DE TRIOMPHE DE L'ÉTOILE], in which the general effect is better than the details, with the exception of Rude's grand sculpture. But there was no general movement like the Greek revival in England. There was for a time a certain tendency to build churches with details founded on Byzantine suggestions, which were not successful; the attempt was not in harmony with the French genius, which, in spite of the fact that France was the cradle of medieval architecture, is now essentially Classic in its tendencies. The great church of the Sacré Cœur, by Abadie (1812-1884), which overlooks Paris from the hill of Montmartre, is (like the Roman Catholic cathedral in London) a frank adoption of Byzantine architecture, and a grand piece of work as such; but it is exceptional. The characteristic successes of the French architects of the century in church architecture are to be seen in such buildings as the church of La Trinité, by Ballu (1817-1885), in which a Gothic type of composition has been translated into Classic detail; in Baltard's (1805-1874) domed church of St. Augustin, where by a happy recognition of the fact that the streets which limit the site meet at an acute angle, the exterior lines of the building are made to expand from the entrance front to the base of the dome; and in Hittorff's (1793-1867) fine and severe basilica church of St. Vincent de Paul. The new Hôtel de Ville at Paris, built after the Commune [1871], keeps a good deal to the style of the earlier French Renaissance, being partly influenced by the fact that the design of the earlier building is reproduced in a portion of the new one. At present the tendency of French architecture is towards the use of the Classic order, in large buildings, combined with a modern school of decorative detail which tends to be a little too florid. The Opera House [built from 1861-1874], by Chas. Garnier (1825-1898), is a fine though somewhat too florid building, redolent (as one may say) of the Second Empire; but the modern French style receives its best exemplification in the two great art-palaces at the Champs Elysées, one of which, that called the Petit Palais (though it is a very large building), by M. Girault, is also a really original conception in plan The Musée de Galliéra at Paris, by the late M Ginain (1825-1898), is a little gem of modern

But

Classic arhitecture, treated in a style distinctively French but with perfect good taste and refinement of detail. Speaking generally, however, what modern French architecture needs is a greater simplicity and reticence in decorative detail. France is the only country which seems to have anything like a recognised tradition and a comsistent purpose in architecture."-H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 533-536.

Germany. "Germany anticipated the Greek revival, before the end of the eighteenth century, in the erection of the Brandenburg Gate at Berlin, with its great Doric columns. With the new century the Germans went into Classic revival with enthusiasm, and on a great scale, and their architects certainly did the thing exceedingly well. Klenze's (1784-1864) columned Ruhmes-Halle at Munich, with its two projecting wings, forming the architectural background to a colossal statue, is a grand conception of its kind; his Glyptothek at Munich, with its columned central portico and plain contrasting wings, is a good composition, and an appropriate façade for a sculpture gallery. The other and perhaps more important representative of Greek classicism in Germany in the early part of the century was Schinkel (1781-1841), who was an architect of some genius in rather columnar Classic buildings at Berlin-the Museum, a quadrangular building with an open colonnade in front, and the Royal Theatre; and his pupil Strack subsequently carried out, in a similar style, the National Gallery at Berlin, also a fine building of its type. Schinkel could perceive, however, that revived Greek was not everything in modern architecture, and endeavoured to treat the BauAkademie at Berlin in a modern style, with coloured brickwork and flat buttresses; but he was hardly at his best away from the Classic orders, which he understood thoroughly how to use. His Nikolai church at Potsdam, however, is a striking and rather original building, with a columned dome mounted on an immense square block of wall with turrets at the angles, which rather reminds one of the masses of walling in Soufflot's Panthéon, and was possibly suggested by it, though the building is by no means equal to the Panthéon. Semper (1803-1879) was a classical architect of somewhat the same school as Schinkel, and is credited with the designs of the Hofburg Theatre, and the new crescent-shaped wing of the Hofburg Palace at Vienna, though they were not carried out by him, but by Hasenauer after his death. Vienna also contributed largely to revived Classic architecture; the Parliament House, by Hansen (1830-1890), about the middle of the century, is to exterior appearance a group of temples of the Corinthian order. At Vienna, however, though there was nothing like a Gothic revival either there or elsewhere in Germany, some large Gothic churches were built, especially the Votive church by Ferstel (1828-1883), which may be described as a starved reproduction of Cologne Cathedral. Vienna has also a Gothic Town Hall, by Schmidt (1825-1891), which is better than the Votive church. The more recent architecture of Germany seems to present a dual aspect. It seems still to be considered that revived Classic is the style for national buildings of the first importance; but the new Houses of Parliament with its [ugly] square cupola and heavy details, is, as Classic architecture, a sad descent from the scholarly refinement of Klenze, Schinkel, and Semper; and the new Berlin cathedral is like a bad St. Peter's. But in the general trend of recent German architecture there is, along with a good deal of horrible stuff which has the trail of l'art nouveau all

over it, a great deal of interesting novelty and originality in design, sometimes rather eccentric, but which at least shows that there is a spirit of life in German architecture, in the more general class of buildings, however they seem to fail at present in great monumental works. . . . Moreover, the Germans pay great attention to sculptural decoration in connection with architecture, and introduce it so as to have a point and meaning in relation to the purpose of the building."—H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 536-540.

Italy and Spain.-"In regard to recent architectural progress Italy and Spain may almost be considered negligible."-H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture (1912), p. 541.

United States.-"The United States of America occupy a somewhat important place in modern architecture. The short history of American architecture has been rather a curious one. In what is called the 'old Colonial' period the houses and other buildings, generally small, had often a good Ideal of architectural interest from the fact that they represented late English Renaissance carried out in wood, as the most available material, instead of in stone; and the difference in the character of the material, and the treatment suited to it, gave to the old architectural details a new effect and expression. And apart from this use of timber, the early Colonial buildings in stone or brick were of a simple and unaffected style which rendered them pleasing. With the development of civilised America into a national power as the United States, came a period of more pretentious architecture with no artistic feeling behind it. L'Enfant's scheme for the laying out of Washington was a fine one, which is only just now in process of being carried out; but the Capitol itself is only an effort at sublimity in cement; and till about thirty years ago American architecture (except for Richardson's short-lived movement in favour of a kind of Romanesque-Byzantine) was like bad English architecture. Since then it has been, as far as public buildings are concerned, like good French architecture, which in a sense is the highest praise. . . . There is no doubt that American architecture at the present moment takes a very high place indeed, especially in the application of Classic ideals to public buildings. It is superior to that of either Germany or England; and if we do not regard it as quite equal to that of France, that would mainly be because it is obviously derived from French study, and one naturally feels that the copy cannot claim to be put quite on a level with the original. As an example of the best American architecture of the day we might take perhaps the Field Columbian Museum at Chicago, than which it would be difficult to find anything better in its way. There are, however, two other phases of modern American architecture to be recognised. In small country houses, sea-side dwellings, &c., the American architects of late years have shown a great deal of invention and picturesqueness, combined as a rule with perfectly good taste; and their country houses of this class may be advantageously contrasted with the ugly vagaries of French and German country-house architecture. . . . A much less pleasing phase of modern American architecture is the development of the 'high building,' consisting of a framework of steel construction with an outer skin of masonry; a manner of building suggested entirely by the commercial consideration of getting the greatest possible amount of rent out of every square yard of site."-H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, pp. 541-543.—Among

the significant contributions of the United States to architecture have been the colossal railway terminals such as the Union Railway station at Washington and the New York Central and Pennsylvania stations in New York City. Educational architecture has occupied a very important and prolific field during the early twentieth century, the most notable and extensive plans being carried out at West Point, Annapolis, University of California and Columbia University in New York City. -See also THEATER.

Recent tendencies: Classical tradition.-Modernism.-Functionalism.-"The modern and increasing use of reinforced concrete construction has been regarded by some as affording a basis for a new architectural style; but there is no sign as yet of anything worth calling by that name, nor does it seem likely that so intractable and unsuggestive a material could ever take the place of stone for architecture of the highest class. The ultra-commercial spirit in America, the spirit which regards a building merely as a thing to be run up as fast as possible to bring a commercial return, has invaded London and is beginning to invade Paris; and unless it is checked will be the death of architecture. If there is one thing that a survey of the history of architecture shows clearly, it is that all that is great in architecture has arisen from the desire to do something fine and noble for its own sake; and where there is not that desire there will be no great architecture."-H. H. Statham, Short critical history of architecture, PP. 544-545-Other critics find the industrial phase of architecture not the most deplorable but the most hopeful. "Modern armoured concrete is only a higher power of the Roman system of construction. If we could sweep away our fear that it is an inartistic material, and boldly build a railway station, a museum, or a cathedral, wide and simple, amply lighted, and call in our painters to finish the walls, we might be interested in building again almost at once. . . . Our great difficulty is lack of spontaneous agreement; an expressive form of art is only reached by building out in one direction during a long time. No art that is only one man deep is worth much; it should be a thousand men deep. We cannot forget our historical knowledge, nor would we if we might. . . . Our survey should have shown us that there is not one absolute external form of beauty, but rather an endless series of changing modes in which the universal spirit of beauty may manifest itself; that, indeed, change of the form is one of the conditions of its continuance. In Egyptian architecture power, wonder, terror, are expressed; in the Greek, serenity, measure and balance, fairness; in the Roman, force and splendour; in the Byzantine, solemnity, mystery, adoration; in the Romanesque, strife and life; in the Arab, elasticity, intricacy and glitter, a suggestion of fountain spray and singing birds; in the Gothic, intensity, swiftness, a piercing quality, an architecture not only of stone, but of stained glass, bells and organ music. Beauty is the complexion of health, to reach it we must put aside our preoccupation about different sorts of rouge. We are always agonizing about design, but design, as Rodin has said, is as nothing compared to workmanship. Any one may see a beautiful landscape composition, but it needs a Turner to paint it. A rearing horse is a living statue, but the difficulty is to carve like Phidias. A skilful architect may design the lines of a cathedral bigger than Bourges, and embodying several excellent new ideas, before his breakfast, but there is little virtue in writing '700 feet long,' or in planning three transepts instead of one, or in

making the chapels quatrefoils instead of octagonal; these are nothing compared to great building skill."-W. R. Lethaby, Architecture, pp. 248250. This revolt from the conservative and historical tradition, strongest in Germany and America, is thus summarized. "The conscious endeavors in modern architecture to make the forms of individual members correspond to their structural duties, to make the aspect of buildings characteristic of their use and purpose, to make the style of the time expressive of the distinguishing elements in contemporary and national culture, may be inclusively designated by the name functionalism. . . . Sometimes the attempt has been to give to new materials like steel or glass, or new systems of construction like reinforced concrete, a form suggested by their own properties. Sometimes the effort has been to express on the exterior of buildings the function of each of their component elements, and to endow each building as a whole with a specific character in conformity with its purpose. More recently there has been a tendency not to remain satisfied unless all the forms employed, even in the solution of timehonored problems, owe as little as possible to the historic styles, and thus are peculiarly and emphatically modern. . . . At the moment of cessation of architectural activity in Europe due to the great war, two contrary tendencies were struggling for mastery in matters of style. One emphasizes the elements of continuity with the past, the other the elements of novelty in modern civilization. In the Germanic countries it is the radical emphasis on novel elements which has secured the advantage, in France and England it is the conservative emphasis on continuity which on the whole retains the supremacy. Whether the present conserva

tive or the present radical tendency may ultimately be victorious, we may be sure that change in architectural style is bound to be constant, and that architecture will remain a living art, not less expressive of the complicated texture of modern life than it has been of the life of earlier and simpler periods."-F. Kimball and G. H. Edgell, History of architecture, pp. 499, 502, 517.

ALSO IN: J. Fergusson, History of architecture. -R. Sturgis and A. L. Frothingham, History of architecture.-R. Sturgis, Dictionary of architecture and building.-Sir J. Lubbock, Prehistoric timesG. C. C. Maspero, Art in Egypt: Dawn of civilisation.-W. J. Anderson and R. P. Spiers, Architecture of Greece and Rome.-A. L. Frothingham, Monments of Christian Rome.-T. G. Jackson, Bysantine and Romanesque architecture.-C. H. Moore, Character and development of Gothic architecture. -F. Bond, Introduction to English church architecture.-C. E. Street, Gothic architecture in Spain.-R. Blomfield, History of Renaissance architecture in England; History of Renaissance architecture in France.-F. Wallis, Old Colonial architecture and furniture.-R. Glazier, Manual of historic ornament.-O. Jones, Grammar of orna

ment.

ARCHIVE, the building in which public records or state papers are kept; also applied to the documents proper; generally used in the latter sense in the plural-See also VATICAN: 1881.

ARCHON, the highest magisterial office in the government of Athens, which, at its institution. usurped many powers of the king. "The archon was the supreme judge in all civil suits. At a later time this sphere of judicial power was limited and he judged mainly cases in which injured parents, orphans, and heiresses were involved. He held the chief place among the magistrates, having his official residence in the Prytaneum where