1816. The antiques of the Musée Napoléon are returned.

1816-17. Laborde, "Monuments de la France." 1818. Quatremère, "Lettres à M. Canova." 1820. Aphrodite of Melos.

1821. Nibby recognizes the groups of Galatians from Pergamon.

1821-2. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by Voutier.

1822, 1824. Gerhard in Rome: in Etruria. 1823. Panofka in Rome; Society of the Roman Hyperboreans.

1826. The Athenian Acropolis bombarded by Reshid Pasha.

1827. Corneto: wall paintings.

1828-9. Vulci: mural paintings; discovery of

vases

1828-30. Egypt: Italian expedition under the direction of Rosellini and Champollion.

1829. Rome: Instituto di corrispondenza archeologica.

Olympia: French excavations at the Temple of Zeus.

1830. The conquest of Algeria begun.

The Crimea: Dulrux opens the Kul Oba, near Kertch.

Opening of the Museum in Berlin and the Glyptothek in Munich.

1831. Pompeii; mosaic, Alexander the Great. 1832. Thomsen distinguishes the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age.

1833-6. Athens: clearing of the citadel by Ross.

1834. Dodwell, "Views of Cyclopian Remains." 1834-42. Serradifalco, "Archita della Sicilia." 1835. Athens: reconstruction of the Temple of Apteros Nike.

1836. Cervétri: the Regulini-Galassi Tomb. 1837. Rawlinson deciphers the inscription of Behistun.

Athens: Pennethorne discovers the horizontal curves on the Parthenon.

Athens: Founding of Greek Archæological Society.

Kramer on "The Origin and Style of Greek Painted Pottery."

1838-44. Fellows travels in Lycia. 1839. Discovery of the Sophocles statue. 1840-1. Coste and Flandin travel in Persia. 1842. Luni: pediment groups of terra-cotta.

London acquires the Nereid Monument from Xanthos.

1843-4, 1845. Ross in Rhodes; inscriptions of artists; work in Cyprus.

1843-5. Egypt: Lepsius directs the Prussian expedition.

1843-6. Khorsabad excavated by Botta. 1845-7. Layard excavates Nimrud.

1846. Halicarnassos: reliefs sent to London. The Apollo of Tenea discovered.

1860. Rénan travels in Phoenicia. Cyrene: Smith and Porcher. 1860-75. Pompeii: Fiorelli directs the excavations.

1861-2. Delphi: Foucart and Wescher.

De Vogué travels in the Hauran.

1861-9. Rome: excavations on the Palatine. 1862. Athens: Bötticher (Acropolis), Curtius (Pnyx), and Strack (theatre).

1862-3. Nikopol: discoveries of tombs. 1863. Rome: Augustus from Prima Porta. Samothrace: Nike (Champoiseau).

Kirchoff, "Studien zur Geschichte des griechischen Alphabets" (Chalcidian vases).

Friedrichs recognizes the Doryphoros of

Polykleitos.

1864. Thasos: Miller.

First discoveries at La Tène.

1865. Rome: the temple on the Capitoline. Alexandria: the sanctuary of Arsinoe. 1866. Smintheion and Temple of Athene at Priene: Pullan.

1866-9. Humann in Asia Minor.

1867-9. Cyprus: Cesnola.

1868. Schliemann visits the Homeric sites. Hildesheim: discovery of the silver treas

ter.

1875-80. Olympia: German excavations. 1875-6. Rome: Temple of the Capitoline Jupi

1894-6. Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of Hatshepsut. 1895. Tell-el-Amarna: British excavations (Amenhotep IV).

Borchardt begins work in Egypt.

1895-6. Didymaion: French excavations. 1895-9. Priene: excavations of the Berlin Museum.

1896-7. Athens: the grotto of Pan, northwest corner of the Acropolis.

1896-1901. Thera: Hiller von Gärtringen. 1896-1907. Ephesos: Austrian excavations. 1897. Nagada: tomb of Menes.

Susa: French excavations.

1897-9. Thermos: Greek excavations. 1898. Vienna: Austrian Archæological Institute Berlin: Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft. 1898-9. Alexandria: German excavations. 1899. Megara: German excavations, fountain. Preuner recognizes the Arias of Lysippos. 1899, 1904. Howard Crosby Butler travels in Syria.

Baalbec: German investigations. 1899-1907. Babylon: excavations by the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft.

Miletos: excavations by the Berlin Museum. 1900. Antikythera: recovery of bronze statues from the sea.

1900-8. Knossos: Arthur Evans.

Pergamon; new German excavations. 1901. Waldstein recognizes the Hera of Polykleitos.

Eleusis: Eubouleus.

Rome: Ludovisi marble throne.

1887-8. Athens: the Stoa of Eumenes. Mantineia: French excavations, Praxitelean

ple.

reliefs.

Ægina: Bavarian excavations of the Tem

Romano-Germanic

Archæological Institute.

commission of the

1902. Samos: Greek excavations at the Heraion. Delos: the French resume their excavations. Treu recognizes the Maenȧd of Scopas. Peterson, Ara Pacis Augustae. 1902-4. Kos: German excavations of Asklepicion.

Abusir: Borchardt investigates pyramids.
Tell-Taanek: Austrian excavations.
Lindos: Danish excavations on the citadel.
Argos: Dutch excavations.

1902-5. Geser: British excavations.

1903. Pergamon: head of the Hermes by Alkamenes found.

1903-4. Rome: excavations to recover the Ara Pacis.

1903-7. Assur: excavations by the Deutsche Orient Gesellschaft.

1904. Karnak: ancient statues found.

Deir-el-Bahari: Temple of the Dead of

Mentuhotep.

1904-8. Leukas-Ithaca: Dörpfeld's excavation. 1906. Abyssinia: German expeditions. 1907. Jericho: Austrian excavation. 1908. A. Evans excavating at Knossos.

Crete.

German School excavating at Pergamon.
French School excavating at Delos.
British School excavating at Sparta.
American School excavating at Corinth.
American School excavating at Moklos in

Austrian School excavating at Ephesus. 1910. Opening of School of American Archæology.

1914-19. Research suspended by World War. 1920. Work resumed by British, American, and French Schools in Mediterranean area.

The above table with many omissions and some additions is taken from A. Michaelis, Century of archæological discoveries, pp. 341-352.

Except for the maintenance of a very small staff, the various schools excavating in Egypt, Greece, Italy, Syria and other places of archaological interest, were forced to suspend their work during the World War and are only now, in 1921, beginning to resume work on a normal basis. The war has in some ways opened up many new avenues of research, as for example the concordat of coöperation agreed upon between the British and American schools in Jerusalem; great results, consequently, are anticipated in the near future.

ARCHAGETÆ, Spartan kings. See SPARTA: Constitution ascribed to Lycurgus.

ARCHANGEL, a town of European Russia, capital of the government of the same name, the only large seaport on the north coast of Russia. From its settlement in the sixteenth century by English traders it flourished until the time of Peter the Great, who sacrificed its development for the benefit of St. Petersburg (Petrograd), which supplanted Archangel as the sole seaport of Russia at that time. The United States commercial attaché at Petrograd, Mr. H. D. Baker, describes the startling rise of Archangel to commercial eminence a year after the opening of the World War in Commerce Reports (Washington: Government Printing Office): "Previous to the war the trade of this port was confined to comparatively small exports of timber, fish, furs, and other local products of northern Russia, and a relatively small return movement of goods required for local consumption. Now, however, Archangel is the only port of European Russia open for foreign business by direct sea communication.... From a comparatively unimportant port about a year ago, dependent chiefly upon its

sawmills and fishing fleet for prosperity, it has suddenly become one of the most important ports in the world, rivaling even New York in the number and tonnage of ships arriving and departing between about May and the close of ice-free navigation. The river begins freezing

in October, but is expected to be kept open from Archangel out through the White Sea till December." Archangel was the most northerly point in the railroad system of Europe until 1916 when the Murmansk railroad was built. In 1918 a force of English, French and Americans seized the city and outlying district to keep it and its accumulated military stores from falling into the hands of the Russian Soviet government. The city later became the headquarters of various military undertakings launched against the Russian Soviet government.-See also RUSSIA: 1918-1920. Anti-Bolshevik movement; and Map; WORLD WAR, 1918: III. Russia: d.

ARCHAVA, captured by the Russians during the World War. See WORLD WAR: 1916: VI Turkish theater: d, 1.

ARCHBISHOP, or Metropolitan, in the Catholic hierarchy, is a bishop in a metropolis, who. in addition to the government of his own diocese. controls the bishops of other simple dioceses within a definite district. (See BISHOP: Investiture: Authority.) In the Anglican church there are two archbishops, those of York and Canterbury. In the Episcopal church in America, it was proposed in 1920 that there be an archbishop at Washington to act as the supervisory head of the church in America. See CHRISTIANITY: 312-337.

ARCHCHANCELLOR (Latin, archicancellarius), a title held by the highest official of the Holy Roman Empire; of modern interest mainly because the officer was the prototype of the powerful imperial German chancellor, 1871-1918.

ARCHDEACON, an official of the Christian church, with executive powers subordinate to the bishop. "Above the rural dean we find the archIdeacon, an officer placed over a larger group of parishes and vested with much more extensive functions."-E. Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 553

ARCHDUKE, the title of princes of the imperial family of Austria. See AUSTRIA: Singularity of Austrian history.

ARCHELAUS (413-399 B. C.), king of Macedonia. Conducted internal reforms, organized the army; fostered the spread of Greek civilization by entertaining celebrated men at his court.-See also GREECE: B. C. 8th-5th centuries: Growth of Sparta,

ARCHELAUS OF CAPPADOCIA, general of Mithradates the Great in the war with Rome. In 87 B. C. he was sent to Greece and was defeated by Sulla in two battles; deserted to the Roman side in the second and third wars. See also MITHRADATIC WARS.

ARCHERY: Use of bows as weapons. See LONGBOW.

ARCHIDAMUS, the name of five Spartan rulers of the Eurypontid line. The best known are the following:

Archidamus II, ruled 476-427 B. C. Tried to avert the Peloponnesian War; invaded Attica. 431-429. See GREECE: B. C. 477-461; 431; 420-427

Archidamus III, 360-338 B. C. Led the relief force sent to the battle of Leuctra; defeated the Arcadians and their allies in the "tearless battle" and captured Caryae, 367; defended Sparta against Epaminondas.

Archidamus IV, defeated in 294 B. C. at Mantineia by Demetrius Poliorcetes.

ARCHILOCHUS, Greek lyric poet and writer

of scathing lampoons, who lived in the seventh century B. C. He contributed much to metrical form, especially the iambic and its application to satiric verse.

ARCHIMEDES (c. 287-212 B. C.), celebrated Greek geometrician and inventor of antiquity. He invented the spiral water-screw, known as the screw of Archimedes, and discovered the principle of the lever. By means of engines of war which he invented, he aided King Hiero in delaying the fall of Syracuse when attacked by Marcellus, the story being (erroneously) that he burned the Roman fleet by means of mirrors.

Archimedes

was killed in the final capture of Syracuse.-See also HELLENISM: Science and invention; SCIENCE: Development of science: Ancient Greek science.

ARCHIPRESBYTER, an administrative office in the Christian church, between the parish clergy and the archdeacon. "The immediate execution of the episcopal orders was intrusted to the care of an official called the arch-priest (archipresbyter) or rural dean (decanus ruralis), himself a parish clergyman, but set over a group of other parishes as inspector of church life in general and with certain minor judicial functions."-E. Emerton, Medieval Europe, p. 553.

Definition of Architecture. "The art of architecture has been defined very variously. It was defined by Mr. Garbett as 'the art of well building; in other words, of giving to a building all the perfection of which it is capable.' Mr. Ruskin defined it as 'the art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by man, for whatever uses that the sight of them may contribute to his mental health, power, and pleasure.' In the American Dictionary of Architecture and Building

ments. Now these two operations, the preliminary and the subsequent one, may be carried on by the same individual, or they may not. . . . When a large and important building is erected nowadays, one and the same man does not undertake both divisions of the work; one part of the work is handed over to one man, the other part to another; in modern parlance the first is the architect, the second the builder. And we may be sure that at all periods when any great building was

(1901) it is defined as 'the art of building with some elaboration and skilled labour; and, in a more limited sense, as 'the modification of the structure, form, and colour of houses, churches, and civic buildings, by means of which they become interesting as works of fine art.' But it can hardly be held that there is one art of making things well and another of making them badly. There is not one art of making clothes that fit and another art of making misfits. One and the same art makes flower-pots for the gardener and Worcester ware for the connoisseur. So it is with Architecture. It is simply 'the art of building.' Good architecture is indeed the art of building beautifully and expressively; and bad architecture is the reverse. But architecture is the art of building in general. . . . This seems clear enough. But as a matter of fact the definition contains an ambiguity in the use of the term 'building.' In the erection of every edifice the work necessarily falls into two parts. There is the preliminary process of planning and designing the buildings, and, it may be, of making drawings, whether rough sketches, or drawings to scale or full size, as well as that of superintendence. There is also the actual putting together of the materials by manual labour and the machinery so as to form roofs, supports, and abut

erected, there was a similar division of functions. . . . To be accurate therefore, we must not, except in comparatively small and unimportant work, define 'architecture' as 'the art of building,' but as 'the art of planning, designing, and drawing buildings, and of directing the execution thereof.'" -F. Bond, Gothic architecture in England, pp.

I-2.

PREHISTORIC

"Structures of the prehistoric period, although interesting for archæological reasons, have little or no architectural value. . . . The remains may be classified under:-I. Monoliths, or single upright stones, also known as menhirs. . . . II. Dolmens (Daul, a table, and maen, a stone), consisting of one large flat stone supported by upright stones. . . . III. Cromlechs, or circles of stone, as at Stonehenge, Avebury (Wilts), and elsewhere, consisting of a series of upright stones arranged in a circle and supporting horizontal slabs. IV. Tumuli, or burial mounds, were probably prototypes of the Pyramids of Egypt. V. Lake Dwellings as discovered in the lakes of Switzerland, Italy and Ireland consisted of wooden huts supported on piles, so placed for protection against hostile attacks of all kinds. These fore

going primitive or prehistoric remains have little constructive sequence, and are merely mentioned here to show from what simple beginnings the noble art of architecture was evolved."-B. Fletcher and B. F. Fletcher, History of architecture on the comparative method, p. 3.

America.-Architecture of American aborigines. See INDIANS, AMERICAN: Cultural areas in Mexico and Central America: Maya area; MEXICO: Aboriginal peoples; PUEBLOS.

ORIENTAL

Egypt: General characteristics.-Principal remains. "We shall not attempt in such limited space, to trace the development of architecture during the successive dynasties of Egyptian history, but merely to note the conditions of climate, religion, and materials which gave rise to the style;

their massiveness that we realize their height. The obelisk, which is the only aspiring form in Egyptian architecture, is also the only one which has no counterpart in nature, and is distinctly a product of the imagination."-M. Brimmer, Three essays on the history, religion and art of ancient Egypt, p. 62.

"The brilliancy of light led to adopting an architecture of blank walls without windows. The reflected light through open doorways was enough to show most interiors; and for chambers far from the outer door, a square opening about six inches each way in the roof, or a slit along the wall a couple of inches high, let in sufficient light. The results of this system were. that as the walls were not divided by structural features, they were dominated by the scenes that were carved upon them. . . . The most gigantic buildings had their surfaces crowded with delicate

and to note the principal examples of it remaining. The essential conditions in Egypt are before all, an overwhelming sunshine; next, the strongest of contrasts between a vast sterility of desert and the most prolific verdure of the narrow plain; and thirdly, the illimitable level lines of the cultivation, of the desert plateau, and of the limestone strata, crossed by the vertical precipices on either hand rising hundreds of feet without a break."-W. M. F. Petrie, Arts and crafts of ancient Egypt, p. 2.-"Thus the outlines of the pyramid, of the flat-roofed temple with its massive columns and of the rock tomb must have been familiar to the eye of the early Egyptian architect from the natural forms about him. The Sphinx itself stands prefigured in its general outline by the hand of nature. Both the scenery and architecture of Egypt convey the same general impression of form, not lofty, but broad, massive and ponderous. Such is the effect of the pyramids themselves when one first sees them. It is not till our eyes have recovered from the effect of

sculpture and minute colouring. What would be disproportianate elsewhere, seems in harmony amid such natural contrasts."-W. M. F. Petrie, Arts and crafts of ancient Egypt, pp. 3, 5.-"The character of Egyptian architecture was also in part conditioned by religious beliefs, which demanded the utmost permanence and grandeur for tombs and temples, the residences of the dead and of the gods, in contrast with the light and relatively temporary houses which sufficed for even the greatest of the living. Such permanence was sought by the almost exclusive employment of fine stone, which the cliffs of the Nile Valley furnished in abundance, and by the adoption, as the dominant constructive types, of the simple mass, and of the column and the lintel. The arch (q. v.), occasionally used from the earliest times. was confined to substructures where it had ample abutment and was little in view. The architec tural members, moreover, were generally of great size and massiveness, although sometimes of ex treme refinement and . . . even of delicacy. Th