ALSACE-LORRAINE

Paris. That this fear was well grounded was made more than probable by the fact that with the declaration of martial law in the 'Imperial Land' after the war tocsin sounded at the beginning of August, 1914, several prominent Alsatians, including Wetterlé fled across the border into France, and that others who were not so fortunate as to make their escape were arrested and found guilty of treasonable acts. As it was, however, the threats against the constitution and the various pin pricks which the government was able to inflict effectively destroyed any national patriotism which the granting of the constitution might have inspired. Popular irritation grew and showed itself in many ways, culminating in the incident at Zabern in December, 1913. In this busy Alsatian town of some ten thousand inhabitants a Prussian regiment of infantry was quartered. Soldiers on duty at the barracks and at liberty in the town had been subjected to insults, and in several cases to rough treatment on the part of rude fellows of the baser sort among the populace. Their officers, filled with the Prussian tradition of military supremacy, ordered the privates to make forcible resistance, employing at the same time the rugged language of the barracks, which being faithfully reported in the town, added still further to the excitement. A crisic was reached in an encounter between civilians and a squad of soldiers led by a young lieutenant, in which the latter fearing, as he claimed, that he would be assaulted by a civilian of the lower class, with the consequent irreparable loss of honor according to the peculiar Prussian military tradition, sabred a lame shoemaker. In the riot which resulted Colonel Reutter, in command at the barracks, took over the administration of public order, brusquely thrusting aside the civil officials and pacifying the city by the abrupt methods of the military. Instantly a shout of protest arose, not only from Alsace-Lorraine, but from all non-feudal circles in Germany as well. The rude supplanting of the civil power by the military was regarded as a recession to the most autocratic days of Prussian history, and in the Reichstag loud calls went up for an authoritative statement from the Kaiser. The Imperial Diet recorded a vote of censure upon the Chancellor for a speech in which the majesty of the law was not vindicated. The whole matter went to the Emperor as supreme military authority and the net result was the transferring of the regiment and the court-martialing of its officers. The latter were finally acquitted, and Colonel Reutter soon after was promoted by the Emperor. The feeling of the feudal classes was summed up in the words of the reactionary Police President of Berlin, Von Jagow: 'AlsaceLorraine is the enemy's country.' Non-feudal Germany accepted a technical statement from the ministry confirming the supremacy of the constitution over the military power, with a further promise from the government that a certain old Prussian cabinet order of 1820 which might be interpreted to the contrary would be amended. Radical and Socialist were the more ready to still their attacks and hush the matter up, because the French journals, always ready to foment discord in the lost provinces, had seized upon the situation."-R. H. Fife, German empire between two wars, PP. 227-230.

1914-1918.-Part in the World War.-AlsaceLorraine lay close to the scene of conflict, but was only occasionally the actual scene of severe fighting except during the first two months of the war. A little fringe of western Alsace was occupied uninterruptedly by the French throughout,

ALSACE-LORRAINE

the great struggle and was also the scene of occasional local fighting. See also WORLD WAR: 1914: I. Western front: h.

1915.-Department of Haut-Rhin formed. See FRANCE: 1915 (January).

1918 (Nov.)-Germany forced to evacuate. See WORLD WAR: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: I. Armistices: f, 1; and 1918: XI. End of the war: c.

1918.-Political aspects of recovery by France. See FRANCE: 1918 (November).

1918.-President Wilson's peace program.Lloyd George's and President Wilson's declaration of war aims.-Count Hertling's attitude. See WORLD WAR: 1918: X. Statement of war aims: b; and d.

1918-1920.-Reconstruction work. See WORLL WAR: Miscellaneous auxiliary services: XII. Reconstruction: a, 3.

1919.-Peace Conference decision.-"AlsaceLorraine took little of the time of the peace conference. This would have seemed strange at any time during the war or the generation which preIceded it, for Alsace-Lorraine was an open wound which, in President Wilson's phrase, 'had unsettled the peace of the world for nearly fifty years' It was not a direct cause of the war, but it became a burning issue as soon as the war broke forth, and it remained one of the chief obstacles to any peace of compromise. But the problemn of Alsace-Lorraine was settled by the Allied victory and evacuation required by the armistice, and these military acts were sealed by the enthusiastic reception of the French troops immediately thereafter. There was no way of reopening the ques tion at the conference, for the Germans had accepted President Wilson's eighth point requiring that the wrong done to France should be righted, and by their enforced evacuation they were no longer in a position to delay or to interfere. Nevertheless at Versailles Germany put up a last fight for the retention of these territories, tied up as they were with Germany's imperial tradition, with her strategic position, and with her supply of iron ore. She demanded that there should be a popular vote. For this there was no legal ground. the language of President Wilson speaking only of the wrong done to France, and the armistice having assimilated Alsace-Lorraine to other occupied territories. . . . Since the signing of the treaty the secret propaganda of the German Heimatdienst [Home Service] has been active in Alsace-Lorraine, keeping alive German feeling where it still exists and in particular fomenting a socalled Neutralist movement for the separation of this region as a neutralized state under the protection of the League of Nations. . . . With the major question of the return of the lost provinces to France settled in advance, the Paris conference had only to deal with matters of detail, such as naturally arise in a retrocession from one country to another. The draft of such clauses was submitted by the French and referred by the council of four to the special committee of three. Messrs. Tardieu, Headlam-Morley, and Haskins which had already been at work on the Saar valley. The clauses respecting citizenship are particularly complicated, and much depends upon the spirit of liberality with which these and the economic clauses are interpreted by the French administration."-E. M. House and C. Seymour What really happened at Paris, story of the Peace Conference, pp. 46-48.

"The treaty therefore restored the provinces with the frontiers of 1871. Since Germany had refused to assume any share of the French debt in

1871, France now recovers the provinces free of obligations as to the German national debt. Simiiarly German state property including railroads is transferred without payment or credit on Germany's reparation account. Other articles fix the details as to customs, court proceedings, and the like. For five years products of Alsace-Lorraine are to enter Germany duty-free, up to the average amounts of 1911-1913. Germany also is to allow free export and re-import of yarns and textile products. The French government has the right to exclude German capital from public utilities and mines, and it also reserves the right to retain and liquidate the property of German citizens in Alsace-Lorraine. An annex provides for the restoration to French citizenship of the old AlsaceLorrainers and their descendants, with some exceptions. Various others within a year may claim French nationality, though in individual cases the French may reject the claim. Germans born or domiciled in Alsace-Lorraine before the war must be naturalized, a period of three years from November 1, 1918, being required."-A. P. Scott, Introduction to the peace treaties, p. 16.-See also VERSAILLES, TREATY OF: Part III: Section V.

"France had not provoked the war in order to regain Alsace-Lorraine; but from the moment the war began, every Frenchman was determined that the old 'open wound' in the side of France must be healed. Although during the war there had been some talk among outside observers of a possible division of Alsace-Lorraine along the lines of the prevailing languages, and although President Wilson had not specified just how 'the wrong done to France in 1871' was to be righted, there was not the slightest doubt after the armistice that Alsace-Lorraine should be restored entire to France. The Germans admitted that in spite of their historic and nationalistic claims, they had, according to present conceptions of right, done an injustice in 1871, when they had not consulted the people of Alsace-Lorraine. In acordance with the new principle of self-determination, however, they demanded a plebiscite, which should decide whether the region wished to join France or Germany or become a free state. This proposal was summarily rejected. It was felt that restoration to France was necessary to redress the injustice of 1871. The will of the inhabitants had been shown by their protests at that time, and later. Practically, a fair plebiscite would have been difficult in view of the fact that many French sympathizers had left after 1871, that many Germans had come in since then, and that during the war the Germans had treated the territory as enemy country. The treaty therefore restored the provinces to France with the frontiers of 1871. The restoration of Alsace-Lorraine is doubly significant. It has a moral and sentimental value, as marking the failure of that Prussian policy of blood and iron which seemed so triumphant in 1871. For France, the stronger frontier and the added population are additional safeguards. But still more important is the iron of Lorraine, the richest field in Europe. From it Germany drew nearly all her ore. With it Germany was able to forge her industrial and military machine. Without it Germany will be helpless for aggression, and dependent for her industrial development on the cultivation of friendly economic relations with France."

Alexandre Millerand was appointed first governorgeneral. The task of submitting civil officials and courts for the administration of French law and of organization of the educational system along French lines, has been substantially achieved. Serious difficulties were encountered due to French unfamiliarity with the country and the barrier of languages, for, in Alsace at least, the great majority of the people speak a German dialect. The currency question also offered certain peculiar difficulties of its own. The franc was made to take the place of the mark. Altogether there was much confusion and disappointment over these various difficulties in spite of the great popular acclaim with which the transfer of these last provinces from German to French sovereignty was received.

"For France the reacquisition of the lost provinces brings not only renewed strength but perplexing problems and responsibilities. Germany had signally failed to win the affection and loyalty of Alsace-Lorraine. On the other hand, the German connection had brought much prosperity to the provinces, and by no means all-perhaps not even a majority-of the people were in 1914 anxious to return to France. In 1918, however, the French were welcomed with a heartiness which even the Germans had to admit. The problem of the complete reincorporation of the provinces in France is not a simple one. Great caution will have to be exercised in applying the French laws as to the separation of church and state, and limiting clerical control of education. If AlsaceLorraine should prove less prosperous than under German rule, or if the anti-clericalism of France should offend the strong Catholic sentiment of the people, grave dissatisfaction may yet arise. It is to be hoped that as little occasion as possible will be given for the growth of a new irredentism, and that the historic wrong of 1871 may have found its final solution."-A. P. Scott, Introduction to the peace treaties, pp. 115-118.-See also FRANCE: 1918 (November).

ALSO IN: E. A. Vizetelly, True story of AlsaceLorraine.-C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine.-G. W. Edwards, Alsace-Lorraine described and pictured (London, 1919).-B. Cerf, Alsace-Lorraine since 1870 (New York, 1919).-Marie Harrison, Stolen lands: Study on Alsace-Lorraine (London, 1918). -C. Phillipson, Alsace-Lorraine, past, present, and future (London, 1918).-C. D. Hazen, Alsace-Lorraine under German rule (New York, 1917).— D. S. Jordan, Alsace-Lorraine (1916).

ALSOP CLAIM. See CHILE: 1909. ALSUA, Enrigue Dorn y de, Representative from Ecuador at the Peace Conference (1919). See VERSAILLES, TREATY OF: Conditions of peace.

ALT AUTZ, Poland: Taken by the Germans (1915). See WORLD WAR: 1915: III. Eastern front: g, 8.

ALTA CALIFORNIA (Upper California). See CALIFORNIA.

ALTAMIRA, caves in northern Spain wherein notable examples of prehistoric paintings were found. See PAINTING: Pre-classical.

ALTAMSH, or Altimsh (d. 1236), king of Delhi. See INDIA: 977-1290.

ALTAR, a raised place of earth, stone or other material, which forms the central point of worship in the sacred building or enclosure of any religion. In the older religions it was upon the altar that sacrifices were made, libations poured, or gifts deposited. In the liturgical Christian churches the sacrament is administered from the altar. the Protestant churches, the altar has disappeared, or has been replaced by the simple communion table.

With the signing of the armistice, the transition period began. The French government by the decree of November 26, 1918, took over the administration of the country and French troops displaced the Germans. On March 22, 1919, M.

In

ALTDORFER, Albrecht (P1480-1538), German painter and engraver, called the "Giorgione of the North." His engravings on wood and copper rank next to those of Albrecht Dürer. ALTEN, Sir Charles (1764-1840), Hanoverian and British soldier. Participated in the campaign in the Low Countries, 1793-1795, in the Hanoverian expedition 1805, was with Moore in the expedition to Spain, and commanded Wellington's third division at Waterloo.

ALTENBURG: Its origin and dukedom. See SAXONY: 1180-1553

ALTENHEIM, Battle of (1675). See NETHERLANDS: 1674-1678.

ALTGELD, John Peter (1847-1902), governor of Illinois, 1893-1897; came to the United States from Germany at an early age. While governor he was severely criticized for his leniency in pardoning three anarchists, said to have been guilty of exploding a bomb in Chicago during a strike in 1886. He again showed that his sympathies were with the workers when he refused to call out the militia in 1894, during the Pullman strikes. President Cleveland sent federal troops over Altgeld's protest on the ground that his action was necessary to protect the federal mills. He supported William J. Bryan in the 1896 and 1900 presidential campaigns, in favor of "free silver," and was a strong advocate of prison reform.

ALTHING. See THING.

ALTHING (General Diet): Denmark. See DENMARK: 1800-1874.

ALTINUM, an ancient town of Venitia, destroyed by Attila in 452. See VENICE: 452.

ALTITUDE RECORDS. See AVIATION: Development of airplanes and air service: 1908-1920. ALTMAN, Benjamin (1840-1913), American art collector and merchant. See GIFTS AND BEQUESTS.

ALTOBELLI, Argentina (c. 1860- ), Italian communist. In 1920 she was head of the union of peasants or land workers, and an influential agitator in the Italian industrial struggle.

ALTON, a railroad town of Madison Co., Ill., on the Mississippi, which is here spanned by a bridge, first settled in 1783. In 1837, during the anti-slavery agitation, Elijah P. Lovejoy, a prominent abolitionist, was killed in what was known as "the Alton riot."

ALTONA, Schleswig-Holstein: 1713.-Burned by the Swedes. See SWEDEN: 1707-1718.

ALTOPASCIO, Battle of (1325). See ITALY:

1313-1330.

ALVA, or Alba, Fernando Alvarez de Toledo, Duke of (1508-1583), famous Spanish general and statesman; prime minister and general of the armies of Spain under Charles V and Philip II; fought in the campaigns of Charles V, and was important factor in the victory at Mühlberg (1547) against Elector John Frederick of Saxony; was victorious against the combined French and Papal forces in the Italian campaign (1555); was sent to suppress Dutch revolt in Netherlands (1567); in 1580, conducted a campaign against Don Antonio of Portugal-See also NETHERLANDS: 1567-1573; 1573-1574; ROME: Modern city: 1537

1621.

Yucatan (1915-1917) under socialistic system; governor of state of Tabasco for a short time; participated in revolution of 1920 which caused the downfall of Carranza; special envoy to Washington for General Alvaro Obregon, leader of the revolution; made minister of finance under the Obregon government; sent on mission to New York, Washington, and European capitals to discuss resumption of payments on Mexican foreign debt. -See also YUCATAN: 1911-1918.

ALVAREZ, Juan (1780-1867), President of Mexico. See MEXICO: 1848-1861.

ALVEAR, Carlos Maria (c. 1785-1850), aids Uruguay to establish its independence. See URUGUAY: 1821-1905.

ALVERSTONE (Sir Richard Everard Webster), Baron (1842-1915), lord chief justice of England. Counsel for The Times in the Parnell inquiry; in 1893 represented England in the Bering sea arbitration; in 1903 a member of the Alaska boundary commission (q.v.).

ALVES, Rodriquez, president of Brazil, 19181922. See BRAZIL: 1918.

ALWANIYAH See DERVISHES.

ALYATTES (609-560 B. C.), king of Lydia founder of the Lydian empire. Fixed the Halys as the boundary between Media and Lydia; drove the Cimmerii from Asia, subdued the Carians His tomb at Sardis was excavated in 1854.

A.M. (Anno mundi), the Year of the World, or the year from the beginning of the world, according to the formerly accepted chronological reckoning of Archbishop Usher and others. Computed from biblical sources, the date of the creation was set at 4004 B. C., a theory no longer accepted by scientists.

AMADE, Albert d', French general. In 1914 with a newly-formed corps, delayed the attempted German drive between the British and French armies. See WORLD WAR: 1914; Western front For operations in Morocco see MOROCCO: 19071909; 1909.

AMADEO, king of Spain, 1871-1873. See AMEDEO FERDINANDO MARIA DI SAVOIA. AMAHUACO. See ANDESIANS.

AMAL, the name of the leading family of the Ostrogoths, from which nearly all their kings known as Amalings, were chosen.

AMALEKITES. "The Amalekites were usu ally regarded as a branch of the Edomites or 'Red-skins.' Amalek, like Kenaz, the father o the Kenizzites or 'Hunters,' was the grandson Esau (Gen. 36: 12, 16). He thus belonged to the group of nations,-Edomites, Ammonites, an Moabites, who stood in a relation of close ki ship to Israel. But they had preceded the Israelites in dispossessing the older inhabitants of the land and establishing themselves in their place. The Edomites had partly destroyed, partly amalgamate the Horites of Mount Seir (Deut. 2:12); th Moabites had done the same to the Emlin, 1 people great and many, and tall as the Anakin (Deut. 2:10), while the Ammonites had extirpated and succeeded to the Rephaim or 'Giants,' who r that part of the country were termed Zamzur min (Deut. 2:20; Gen. 14:5). Edom howeve stood in a closer relation to Israel than its tw more northerly neighbours. . . . Separate from the Edomites or Amalekites were the Kenites e wandering 'smiths.' They formed an importan Guild in an age when the art of metallurgy wi confined to a few. In the time of Saul we her of them as camping among the Amalekites i Sam. 15:6.). . . The Kenites . . . did not com stitute a race, or even a tribe. They were. most, a caste. But they had originally com

ALVARADO, Pedro de (1495-1541), Spanish soldier appointed commander of a fleet for the conquest of Mexico. He later conquered Guatemala, and in 1527 was appointed governor of the captured territory by Charles V. See MEXICO: 1510-1520 1521 (May-July).

ALVARADO, Salvador (1880- ), Mexican general and statesman; governor of the state of

like the Israelites or the Edomites, from those barren regions of Northern Arabia which were peopled by the Menti of the Egyptian inscriptions. Racially, therefore, we may regard them as allied to the descendants of Abraham. While the Kenites and Amalekites were thus Semitic in their origin, the Hivites or 'Villagers' are specially associated with Amorites."-A. H. Sayce, Races of the Old Testament, ch. 6.-See also JEWS: Israel under the Judges, and Kingdoms of Israel and Judah; CHRISTIANITY: Map of Sinaitic peninsula.

ALSO IN: H. Ewald, History of Israel, bk. 1, sect. 4.

AMALFI, a seaport town in Campania, south Italy. It is about twenty-two miles southeast of Naples, on the Gulf of Salerno. An interesting building is the old cathedral, with bronze doors cast in Constantinople in the 11th century. A hotel now makes use of an old Capuchin monastery, which dates from the beginning of the 13th century. "It was the singular fate of this city to have filled up the interval between two periods of civilization, in neither of which she was destined to be distinguished. Scarcely known before the end of the sixth century, Amalfi ran a brilliant career, as a free and trading republic which was checked by the arms of a conqueror in the middle of the twelfth. . . . There must be, I suspect, some exaggeration about the commerce and opulence of Amalfi, in the only age when she possessed any at all."-H. Hallam, Europe during the Middle Ages, ch. 9, pt. 1, with note.-"Amalfi and Atrani lie close together in two. ravines, the mountains almost arching over them, and the sea washing their very house-walls. . . . It is not easy to imagine the time when Amalfi and Atrani were one town, with docks and arsenals and harbourage for their associated fleets, and when these little communities were second in importance to no naval power of Christian Europe. The Byzantine Empire lost its hold on Italy during the eighth century; and after this time the history of Calabria is mainly concerned with the republic of Naples and Amalfi, their conflict with the Lombard dukes of Benevento, their opposition to the Saracens, and their final subjugation by the Norman conquerors of Sicily. Between the year 839 when Amalfi freed itself from the control of Naples and the yoke of Benevento, and the year 1131, when Roger of Hauteville incorporated the republic in his kingdom of the Two Sicilies, this city was the foremost naval and commercial port of Italy. The burghers of Amalfi elected their own doge; founded the Hospital of Jerusalem, whence sprang the knightly order of S. John; gave their name to the richest quarter in Palermo; and owned trading establishments or factories in all the chief cities of the Levant. Their gold coinage of 'tari' formed the standard of currency before the Florentines had stamped the lily and S. John upon the Tuscan florin. Their shipping regulations supplied Europe with a code of maritime laws. Their scholars, in the darkest depths of the dark ages, prized and conned a famous copy of the Pandects of Justinian, and their seamen deserved the fame of having first used, if they did not actually invent, the compass. . . The republic had grown and flourished on the decay of the Greek Empire. When the hard-handed race of Hauteville absorbed the heritage of Greeks and Lombards and Saracens in Southern Italy these adventurers succeeded in annexing Amalfi. But it was not their interest to extinguish the state. On the contrary, they relied for assistance upon the navies and the armies of the little commonwealth. New powers had meanwhile arisen in the North

of Italy, who were jealous of rivalry upon the open seas; and when the Neapolitans resisted King Roger in 1135, they called Pisa to their aid, and sent her fleet to destroy Amalfi. The ships of Amalfi were on guard with Roger's navy in the Bay of Naples. The armed citizens were, under Roger's orders, at Aversa. Meanwhile the home of the republic lay defenceless on its mountaingirdled seaboard. The Pisans sailed into the harbour, sacked the city and carried off the famous Pandects of Justinian as a trophy. Two years later they returned, to complete the work of devastation. Amalfi never recovered from the injuries and the humiliation."-J. A. Symonds, Sketches and studies in Italy, pp. 2-4.

AMALFITAN TABLES. See INTERNATIONAL LAW: Maritime codes.

See

AMALGAMATED LABOR UNION. AMERICAN FEDERATION OF LABOR: 1881-1886. AMALIKA. See ARABIA: Ancient succession and fusion of races.

AMALINGS, or Amals.-The royal race of the ancient Ostrogoths, as the Balthi or Balthings were of the Visigoths, both claiming a descent from the gods.

AMALRIC I (1135-1174), king of Jerusalem. Reigned from 1162 till his death. Made several unsuccessful incursions into Egypt. See JERUSALEM: 1144-1187.

Amalric II (1144-1205), king of Jerusalem from 1197 to his death. Merely nominal ruler, as Jerusalem remained in the hands of the Saracens throughout his reign; was also king of Cyprus, as Amalric I, from 1194. See JERUSALEM: 11871229.

AMANA COMMUNITY, German religious communistic society of Iowa. See SOCIALISM: 18431874.

AMANDO. See ALCANTRA, KNIGHTS OF. AMANI (East Africa), Battle of. See WORLD WAR: 1916: VII. African theater: a, 11.

AMAPALA, Treaty of (1895). See CENTRAL AMERICA: 1895-1902.

AMARA, Mesopotamia, Captured by British (1915). See WORLD WAR: 1915: VI. Turkey: c, 2. AMARYNTHUS, (1), king of Eubra; (2) a town under the rule of King Amarynthus, famed for its temple of Artemis.

AMASIA, a small Turkish city in Asia Minor about 200 miles southwest of Trebizond, in ancient times the capital of the kingdom of Pontus. Strabo, the father of geography, was born here.

AMASIS I (c. 1700 B. C.), founder of the Eighteenth Dynasty in Egypt. Waged successful wars against the Hyksos princes.

Amasis II, last great ruler of Egypt, 570-526 B. C.; usurped the throne of King Apries; maintained friendly relations with Greece. See EGYPT: B. C. 670-525.

AMATHUS, an ancient Phoenician city on the southern coast of Cyprus. It was involved in the successful revolt of Cyprus against Persian rule (500-494 B. C.). Amathus refused to join the phil-Hellene league; that refusal brought on a siege of the city by Onesilas of Salamis, who was captured and executed when his attempt failed.

AMATI, Nicolo (1596-1684), the most famous of the Amati family that founded the Cremona school of violin makers. Nicolo was the teacher of Andrea Guarnieri and Antonio Stradivari. AMATONGALAND, or Tongaland.-On the east coast of South Africa, north of Zululand, un

der British protection since 1888. See AFRICA: Modern European occupation: 1884-1889.

AMAURY. See AMALRIC.

AMAZIGH OF THE RIF, Characteristics of. See AFRICA: Races of Africa: Prehistoric peoples. AMAZON INDIANS. See INDIANS, AMERICAN: Cultural areas in South America: Amazon

area.

AMAZON RIVER: Its course.-MadeiraMamore railway.-The Amazon is a river of South America, and is the longest and most extensive inland waterway in the world. Its length is variously estimated at between 3,000 and 4,000 miles; with more than 200 tributaries this great fluvial system drains an area of over 2,700,000 square miles. About 2,500 miles of its length courses through Brazil. Rising in the Peruvian Andes in two main arteries, the Marañon or Tinguragua and the Ucayali, also known as the Apurimac, the stream becomes united at Tabatinga on the borders of Peru and Brazil, abou. 5° south and flows eastward as the Solimoens river to the Rio Negro confluence. From this point the Amazon proper, or lower course, winds through Brazil and empties itself into the Atlantic directly on the equator. From Tabatinga the two sections of the main stream, together with most of their ramifying branches, are comprised within Brazilian territory; the upper section, together with the upper valleys of some of the Solimoens affluents, belong entirely to Peru. Here rise and flow for hundreds of miles the Marañon, the Huallaga, and the Ucayali, that is, the three farthest headstreams of the whole system with which the Paute, Pastaza, Tigre and Napo from Ecuador converge above Tabatinga to form the Solimoens. It is apparently owing to its westernmost position, farthest from the Atlantic, that the Marañon is commonly regarded as the true upper source of the Amazon. Judging by length and volume, however, this distinction should be awarded to the Ucayali, which is the larger of the two at the confluence and has also a much longer course.

"From Pará to the Amazon proper much can be seen, but by far the greater interest lies in the passage through the narrows; that is, the latter part of this stretch, and it can be enjoyed only by daylight, when the sometimes threatening closeness to the banks permits those on the deck of the steamer to catch the details within or about the small thatched huts (barracas) of the natives; to watch the children at their games, which are much the same as games of children in other parts of the world; and to study the endless variety of the crowded, impenetrable vegetation of the forest. Here the trees appear to be higher and greener, the sparse clearings, whether made by nature or man, farther apart; but the huts are numerous, and the traveler can fancy a certain degree of neighborhood life among the simple people. One seldom sees a patch along the water's edge between any two huts, or settlements, but the water is always there, and it affords the only traveled highway for either sociability or commence. The main river to the novelty-seeking tourist may be somewhat disappointing. He who has seen the Rhine, the Thames, the Danube, or the Hudson is apt to come away with the fixed opinion that the Amazon is rather monotonous. The only reason upon which such an opinion can be based is the fact that the four or five days on the river to Manaos present no striking views of constantly varying scenery, no great evidences of the struggles of nature when the earth was forming, and only here and there substantial traces of man's conquest of the land. The stream flows practically due east

from the Andes with only a few turns in its course, although the channel alters from season to season. The numerous islands are in general indistinguishable from the mainland; the entrance of any one of the many important tributaries creates little disturbance and seems not to increase at all the tremendous volume of water between the two banks. . . . Only three places really attract notice on the through voyage-Obidos, Santarem, and Itacoatiara a few miles below the mouth of the Madeira River. The two former are historical, being early settlements grown into cities since the time of the Province and the Empire; the latter was originally an Indian vil lage and once had the name of Serpa which is yet heard on the lips of experienced river men. Pará is one of the oldest cities in Brazil, and offers for the tourist much that is interesting from any point of view. Manaos, on the contrary, is one of the newest cities in Brazil, and illustrates fairly well what Brazilians can do in civic foundation and improvement. . . . To those who are travelers with a different purpose, however, the Amazon Valley is a wonderland, the richest in opportunity of any of the world's hitherto unoccupied spaces. For the botanist, for instance, an unlimited field for investigation is still open, and the studies of Bates, Spruce, or others have merely hewn a slight path through this most luxuriant of nature's gardens. For the biologist and zoologist, the amount of the unknown is fascinating, and the needed researches into the natural history of this region will furnish activity for inquiring minds during the greater part of the present century. The ethnologist also must be fascinated by the chance here offered to discover man in an environment which, while leaving him essentially savage, has yet developed in him many of the better phases of human nature. In fact every student of whatever degree or inclination should know that here is a theater that calls him most ardently to action now, and in which there need be not one moment of dullness or monotony. . . . One of the seven wonders of the first part of the twentieth century. . . [is] the Madeira-Mamore Railway. . . . In a sentence, the Madeira-Mamore Railway is to Brazil and Bolivia what the Panama Canal is to Chile and Peru. . . . The MadeiraMamore Railway is 363.4 kilometers long (202) miles). It extends in a direction almost due south, within the Brazilian State of Matto Grosso, between the terminals Porto Velho at the north, on the Madeira River, to Guajara-Mirim at the south, on the Mamore River. The Madeira-Mamore Railway was built to avoid the rapids and falls of the Madeira River, and it is evident, when passing over the line, that the result was most satisfactorily obtained."-H. Hale, Valley of the river Amazon.-Madeira-Mamore Railway Company (Pan American Union, Dec., 1912).-See also BRAZIL: Geographic description; LATIN AMERICA: Map of South America.

Discovery and naming.-The mouth of the great river of South America was discovered in 1500 by Pinzon, or Pinçon, who called it "Santa Maria de la Mar Dulc" (Saint Mary of the freshwater sea). "This was the first name given to the river, except that older and better one of the Indians, 'Parana,' the Sea; afterwards it was Marañon and Rio das Amazonas, from the female warriors that were supposed to live near its banks. . . . After Pinçon's time, there were others who saw the fresh-water sea, but no one was hardy enough to venture into it. The honor of its, real discovery was reserved for Francisco de Orellana; and he explored it, not from the east,