AGRICULTURE, MODERN

Allies import. Under war conditions the production of wheat by the Allies has been greatly reduced, notwithstanding the slight increase in Great Britain. On account of bad weather the supply of American wheat has been hardly above the amount required at home for normal consumption during the two years 1916 and 1917. The United States wheat crop of 1914 was the heaviest ever known and constituted almost onefourth of the world's crop. Following as it did rather heavy crops for the two years preceding, the amount of wheat on hand at the outbreak of the war was by far greater than normal. . . . [See FOOD REGULATION: 1885-1914.]

"From the standpoint of world production the United States occupies the predominating position with respect to corn, producing from two-thirds to three-fourths of the world supply. In 1914 the world production was, according to the reports, 3,878,000,000 bushels, of which the United States produced 2,673,000 bushels or 69 per cent. The production of oats in the United States, in terms of bushels, ranks next to corn. In value oats rank normally below wheat. The acreage of oats has increased more, relatively, during the past forty years than have the acreages of either corn or wheat. In 1914 the world crop was 4,035,000,000 bushels, of which the United States produced 1,141,000,000 bushels, or 28 per cent. The importance of the oat crop is largely indirect so far as food is concerned since no considerable part is eaten. However, as a war commodity oats play an important rôle as feed for horses. . . . None of the other cereals enter greatly either directly or indirectly, into the food supply of the United States. As a barley producing nation the United States ranks second only to Russia, but even so the production in this country is normally under 200,000,000 bushels per year, or only about a quarter that of wheat, and not a tenth that of corn. Barley does not enter greatly into the food of the people of the United States nor of the European Allies. One of the most important food crops other than the cereals is the potato. The normal potato crop of the country ranges from 300,000,000 to 400,000,000 bushels, it being a crop which varies widely according to weather condition. To this may be added the sweet potato crop of 60,000,000 to 75,000,000 bushels. . . . Compared with that of other countries the potato crop of the United States is not large. The world crop is over 5,000,000,000 bushels, of which the United States produces but about 7 per cent. . . . No doubt the most important crop other than the cereals is sugar. The United States, including island possessions, produces from two to two and a half million tons, or four to five billion pounds, annually. This is about half of the amount consumed, the additional amount coming mainly from Cuba.... With the European supply mainly cut off the Allies are obliged to get their sugar in large part from Cuba, which is also the source of the American importations. In this roundabout manner the supply of sugar for American use is seriously reduced. . . . The production of beet sugar was begun in earnest about 1800. In 1906 the beet sugar production exceeded the cane sugar production. [See also LOUISIANA: 1914-1916.] . . The cotton crop is sometimes second and sometimes third in value of all crops, it being exceeded uniformly by corn and part of the time by hay. Cotton is the most important commercial crop of the country, outranking corn in this respect because of the fact that substantially all cotton is sold as such by the producer, while corn has many uses, and is turned into other products

AGRICULTURE, MODERN

world's supply of cotton is grown in the United States. The yield ranges from 10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bales per year varying greatly with weather conditions. . . . While there is almost without fail a reduction in the cotton acreage following an unusually heavy yield with its attendant lower price it so happened that for the two years preceding the war the acreage and yield were both above normal, with the result that an unprecedented supply of cotton was on hand when hostilities began in Europe in 1914. . . . An idea of the growth of the cotton industry may be had from the fact that the acreage increased from 13,000,000 in 1880 to 37,000,000 in 1913. And the importance of the supply on hand in 1914 may be gathered from the figures showing an average yield from 1906 to 1909 of 11,000,000 bales per year, while from 1910 to 1914 this average was 14,000,000 bales."-B. H. Hibbard, Effects of the war upon agriculture (Department of Agriculture Yearbook, pp. 3-12).

It has been conservatively estimated that the gardens throughout the country trebled in area in 1917 when a concerted effort was made to increase the food supply in the United States. In practically every city, suburb and village home gardens were enlarged. Many thousands of acres of idle land, which heretofore had been wastefully neglected, were utilized during the World War, by individuals, municipalities and corporations, in the production of such staples as corn, potatoes, cabbage, turnips, onions, etc., as well as other perishable vegetables. Factors which gave invaluable aid to the spirit of utilizing gardens for food production were the extension services of the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as of the various State departments, the agricultural and the general press. All these agencies actively coöperated in furnishing assistance and information dealing both with the culture and conservation of vegetables. Where no garden space was available, the practice in the homes was to can and dry large quantities of vegetables. Although the season was unfavorable for successful cultivation in many localities, especially in cases of amateur gardening, the net result was an important addition to the country's supply of fresh, dried and canned vegetables, which brought about the release of a considerable amount of food to the soldiers and sailors of our army and navy and those of our allies.

"It is customary to attribute the high cost of living to lessened production due to a supposed decline of agriculture, and to advise, therefore, that more persons engage in farming for the purpose of increasing the product. This position is met by an editorial of the New York Tribune, which holds that intermediary trading combinations are responsible: 'It is true that the raising of cattle for the market has almost ceased in the East and that agriculture generally has not kept pace with the demand for food products. Yet it is hard to believe that agriculture in any part of the Union would steadily decline in the face of an enormous appreciation of the cost to the consumer of all farm products, were there not some powerful disturbing factor operating to deny the farmer the benefits of that appreciation. If the Eastern farmer could have reaped a legitimate share of the increase in the price of farm produce which has taken place in the last twenty years, he would cer tainly be in a position to command all the labor he needs and to develop resources now neglected because it does not pay to develop them. Yet economic law has not operated to stimulate agri

AGRICULTURE, MODERN

culture, because the returns from steadily mounting prices have not really reached the producer. Thirty years ago the fattening of steers for the local markets was common in the East. But when the vast Western ranges were opened, and the great packing houses were established, the cheapness of range beef, refrigerated and delivered in Eastern cities, was used as a weapon to kill off the cattle industry of the East. When the Eastern cattleman was driven out of business, the price of beef rose, but virtually all the increase has gone to the packing combinations, which fix their own price to the Western range man and their own price to the consumer and artificially control the supply so as to discourage increased production in the West and to prevent a revival of production in the East. The country is growing in population at the rate of twenty to twenty-five per cent each decade. But Secretary Wilson has shown that the supply of food animals is not being maintained in proportion to population. In the last decade cattle have remained about stationary in numbers, swine are actually decreasing, and, while more sheep are available, the supply has diminished relatively to population.'"-L. H. Bailey, Country-life movement in the United States, pp. 153-155.-See also CONSERVATION OF NATURAL RESOURCES: United States.

Two associations of farmers have recently been formed and are at work in the United States to improve the conditions of farming and of farmers. One, the American Farm Bureau Federation, had been encouraging coöperative action on the part of farmers in order to lessen the profits of middlemen; while the other, the National Board of Farmers' Organizations was formed during the war to unify the agricultural interests and bring their cause before the people. Its activities continued after the war, and recently it announced the intention of building a "temple of agriculture" at Washington to act as headquarters for the organized farmers of the United States. Another agency for improving agricultural conditions has been employed in some of the States, notably in New York, namely, the farm county agents. On July 1, 1918, there were over 6,200 farm county agents employed in this country. Farmers are coming to demand a larger share in the administration of the government, claiming that theirs is the largest single industry in America and represents the largest investment. The presidential candidates of both great parties in 1920 acknowledged the justice of these claims and pledged to the farmers more representation on government boards. (See U. S. A.: 1920: Democratic platform, Republican platform). The junior agricultural movement in the country schools has developed rapidly in recent years, and the accomplishments of children in the schools along these lines form a prominent feature of the exhibits at country fairs. (See U. S. Boys wORKING RESERVE.). The bitterest feelings have been engendered in the rural districts by the attempt to prolong the daylight saving laws and the farmers were mainly instrumental in effecting their repeal.See also AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION; AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES; CALIFORNIA: 1917 (Breed bill); DAYLIGHT SAVING MOVEMENT: 1919; FOOD REGULATION: 1920.

United States: Rural policy.-Information."A policy may be simply that which actually happens through a series of years, but a policy for the New Day, a real policy, implies adequate knowledge, definite plans, correlation of effort. So in our governmental affairs, whatever is done or advocated by departments, boards or bureaus, should

Agriculture, MODERN

be the result of a well-founded and well-rounded policy. Probably there is in these agencies no lack of definite knowledge, and it should be easy for them to make plans. But it is more difficult to secure their coöperation. Within the state, for example, how may we adjust the administrative functions of a department of agriculture and the educational functions of a college of agriculture? We find in Washington half a dozen or more bureaus or boards dealing with matters of agricultural education. If these cannot be consolidated, at least they ought to be forced to coöperate intimately and freely and unreservedly. Perhaps an agricultural development committee in each state and in Washington might be a means of grace in this connection. The British Agricultural Develop. ment Committee is virtually an advisory committee to Parliament. It has no direct authority, but its recommendations as to appropriations and as to the work of the different governmental agencies, both national and local, carry far in Parliament. [See FOOD REGULATION: 1914-1918: Legislative enactments in Great Britain.] Some such group authorized by law, and composed of representatives of the public agencies involved, with additional members appointed by the President and in the state by governors, might be able to secure the necessary cooperation of governmental agencies. It is not too strong a statement to say that we are on the verge of chaos with reference to the interrelationships of public boards, departments and bureaus. It is a serious situation and there is only one way out. There must be coöperation, if not voluntary, then compulsory.

"Whatever our conclusions as to the place of the government dealing with agricultural matters, there is clearly one task that it can perform better than any other agency and which is evidently its duty. That is the task of discovering and disseminating information. This function embraces the necessity for accurate investigations, for wise and clear interpretation of these investigations, for well planned and numerous demonstrations of the applicability of the principles worked out as the result of investigation, and for widespread publicity that will reach the masses of farmers with understandable expert advice. Government, both state and national, should gather and distribute the fullest possible information on all of the different aspects of the rural problem. Its duty does not stop with information about production, but includes the field of distribution of farm products and the welfare or country life phase of the farmers' interests. This information should not only be made available to all the farmers, but they must be all but compelled to listen if they are unresponsive."-K. L. Butterfield, Farmer and the new day, pp. 193-195.-See also AGRICULTURE, DEPARTMENT OF (UNITED STATES).

United States: Railroad problem.-The progress of agriculture and the welfare of the farmer have been continuously bound up with the railroad question, and many states have seriously undertaken to bring closer coöperation between agricultural interests and the railroads.-See also MINNESOTA: 1916; NORTH DAKOTA: 1880-1916; 1892-1896.

See also ALASKA: 1919-1920; INDIANS, AMERICAN: 1920: Review of agricultural development; PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: 1917-1918; U. S. A.:: Economic map.

ALSO IN: Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, March, 1912.-J. M. Gillette, Conditions and needs of country life.K. L. Butterfield, Rural sociology as a college discipline.-F. B. Mumford, Education for agriculture.-T. N. Carver, Economic sign 가

of

changes in country population.-L. C. Gray, Southern agriculture.-G. F. Wells, Rural church.-H. W. Fought, Country school.-S. G. Dixon, Rural home.-J. Hamilton, Influences exerted by agricultural fairs.-R. B. Watrous, Civic arts and country life.-J. C. Marquis, Social significance of the agricultural press.-M. T. Scudder, Rural reccreation, a socializing factor.-Cyclopedia American agriculture, v., edited by L. H. Bailey, New York, 1917.-K. L. Butterfield, Chapters in rural progress, Chicago, 1908.-G. W. James, Reclaiming the arid West.-Scientific American, April 27, 1918.-Agricultural revolution in the South. -C. Turnor, Land problems and national welfare. ---J. Wilson and H. Wallace, Agricultural conditions in Great Britain and Ireland.

AGRICULTURE, Biology as applied to. See BIOLOGY: Applications.

AGRICULTURE, Department of (United States), had its origin in one of the early duties of the Patent Bureau, that of the distribution of seeds and plants to farmers. In 1862 a bureau of agriculture was created and in 1889 it was raised to the dignity of an executive department, with a secretary having a seat in the cabinet. The weather bureau has charge of weather forecasts, including warnings of storms, cold waves, frosts and floods; it also reports temperature and rainfall conditions for agricultural staples. The bureau of animal industry conducts the inspection of animals slau htered for food. The bureau of plant industry takes charge of the scientific investigation of plant life and the distribution, through members of Congress, of flower and garden seeds. The bureau of statistics prepares crop reports. The bureau of chemistry takes charge of the enforcement of the Pure Food and Drug Act. The forest service has charge of the national forest reserves and coöperates with state governments and private owners of forests. The bureau of entomology investigates injurious insects affecting crops, fruits and forests. The bureau of biological survey enforces federal laws for the protection of birds and game, has charge of the bison range and the protection of migratory birds. The bureau of soils, the division of publications, the office of experiment stations and the office of public roads have duties such as their titles suggest.

The work of the department as a whole "is covered in three general classes: (1) Research work, which includes the scientific study of the fundamental problems of agriculture. (2) Educational or extension work, which aims to make available to the rural population the results of the department's experiments and discoveries. (3) Regulatory work which includes the enforcement of statues relating to meat inspection, animal and plant quarantine, foods and drugs, game and migratory birds, seed adulteration, insecticides and fungicides, the manufacture of vaccines and viruses, and the administration of the national forests. There stands to the credit of the Department of Agriculture the eradication of the cattle tick from 204.000 square miles of territory in ten years, the suppression of the foot-and-mouth disease in all the country from Massachusetts to Montana, the saving of the citrus industry of California, and a score of other invaluable services protecting the orchards and fields and forests from destruction by insect and fungus pests. In addition, new farm products to the value of $270,000,000 have been promoted by the introduction and development of new crops, and one-third of the total area of the United States has been covered by the soil surveys conducted by this Department."-J. C. Hemphill. A great farmer, David Franklin Houston (North American

Review, June, 1917).-"The federal and state governments at present do little directly to aid in preserving and improving the fertility of the soil; but the experiments in advanced methods of cultivation carried on by the Department of Agriculture, the Experiment Stations, and state agricultural colleges, are doing much to show the farmers how to make the best use of their land and at the same time to conserve it for the use of posterity. Science will become the servant of agriculture as well as of industry."-C. A. Beard, American government and politics, p. 408.-See also FOOD REGULATION: 1917-1918: Food control in the United States.

AGRICULTURE, International Institute of. -The idea of an international organization for systematizing the agricultural production of the world and regulating the markets of food products, by constant and authentic knowledge of crops and conditions, was conceived some years ago by Mr. David Lubin, of California. It was first expressed by him publicly at Budapest in 1896, but was the growth of thirteen years of thought preceding that date. As the result of Mr. Lubin's efforts to interest governments and peoples in the project, King Victor Emmanuel III, of Italy, became its hearty patron in 1903, and took the initial step toward effecting an organization as wide as the civilized world, by inviting all nations to take part in a convention of delegates for the purpose, at Rome, in May, 1905. The invitation, as ad dressed to the Government of the United States by the Italian ambassador at Washington, on February 26, 1905, was in these words: "By order of my government, I have the honor to inform your excellency that His Majesty the King, my august sovereign, has taken the initiative in the formation of an international institute of agricul ture to be composed of representatives of the great agricultural societies of the various countries and of delegates from the several governments. This institute, being devoid of any political intent. should tend to bring about a community of interests among agriculturists and to protect these in terests in the markets of the world. It will study agricultural conditions in the different countries. periodically indicating the supply and the quality of products with accuracy and care, so as to proportion production to demand, increase and dis tribute the various crops according to the rate of consumption, render the commerce of agricultura' products less costly and more expeditious, and suit ably determine the prices thereof. Acting ir unison with the various national bureaus already existing, it will furnish accurate information or conditions regarding agricultural labor in various localities, and will regulate and direct the cur rents of emigration. It will favor the institution of agricultural exchanges and labor bureaus. It will protect both producers and consumers against the excesses of transportation and forestalling syn dicates, keeping a watch on middlemen, pointing out their abuses, and acquainting the public with the true conditions of the market. It will foster agreements for common defense against the dis eases of plants and live stock, against which in dividual defense is less effectual. It will help to develop rural coöperation, agricultural insurance. and agrarian credit. It will study and propose measures of general interest, preparing interna tional agreements for the benefit of agriculture. and the agricultural classes. Carrving out the intention of His Majesty, the Italian Government appeals to all friendly nations, each of which ought to have its own representatives in the in stitute, appointed to act as the exponents of their

respective governments, as organs of mutual relations, and as mediums of reciprocal influence and information. It accordingly now invites them to participate through their delegates in the first convention, which is to be held at Rome next May for the purpose of preparing rules for the new institute. The king's government trusts that the United States will be willing to coöperate in the enterprise, the first inspiration of which is due an American citizen, and that, accepting the invitation to the conference at Rome, it will send thither a delegation commensurate with its importance as the foremost agricultural nation in the world."

1905.-Conference at Rome.-Gratifying responses to the invitation were made by most, if not all, of the governments addressed, and a royal proclamation was issued calling an international conference at Rome to which thirty-eight powers responded. It concluded its sessions on June 7, 1905, by adopting a final act embodying the resolutions upon which they had agreed. The text of the act follows:

"ARTICLE I. There is hereby created a permanent international institute of agriculture, having its seat at Rome.

"ARTICLE 2. The international institute of agriculture is to be a government institution, in which each adhering power shall be represented by delegates of its choice. The institute shall be composed of a general assembly and a permanent committee, the composition and duties of which are defined in the ensuing articles.

"ARTICLE 3. The general assembly of the institute shall be composed of the representatives of the adhering governments. Each nation, whatever be the number of its delegates shall be entitled to a number of votes in the assembly which shall be determined according to the group to which it belongs, and to which reference will be made in article 10.

"ARTICLE 4. The general assembly shall elect for each session from among its members a president and two vice-presidents. The sessions shall take place on dates fixed by the last general assembly and according to a programme proposed by the permanent committee and adopted by the adhering governments.

"ARTICLE 5. The general assembly shall exercise supreme control over the international institute of agriculture. It shall approve the projects prepared by the permanent committee regarding the organization and internal workings of the institute. It shall fix the total amount of expenditures and audit and approve the accounts. It shall submit to the approval of the adhering governments modifications of any nature involving an increase in expenditure or an enlargement of the functions of the institute. It shall set the date for holding the sessions. It shall prepare its regulations. The presence at the general assemblies of delegates representing two-thirds of the adhering nations shall be required in order to render the deliberations valid.

"ARTICLE 6. The executive power of the institute is intrusted to the permanent committee, which, under the direction and control of the general assembly, shall carry out the decisions of the latter and prepare propositions to submit to it.

"ARTICLE 7. The permanent committee shall be composed of members designated by the respective governments. Each adhering nation shall be represented in the permanent committee by one member However, the representation of one nation may be intrusted to a delegate of another adher

ing nation, provided that the actual number of members shall not be less than fifteen. The conditions of voting in the permanent committee shall be the same as those indicated in article 3 for the general assemblies.

"ARTICLE 8. The permanent committee shall elect from among its members for a period of three years a president and a vice-president, who may be reëlected. It shall prepare its internal regulations, vote the budget of the institute within the limits of the funds placed at its disposal by the general assembly, and appoint and remove the officials and employees of its office. The general secretary of the permanent committee shall act as secretary of the assembly.

"ARTICLE 9. The institute, confining its operations within an international sphere, shall

"(a) Collect, study, and publish as promptly as possible statistical, technical, or economic information concerning farming, both vegetable and animal products, the commerce in agricultural products, and the prices prevailing in the various markets;

"(b) Communicate to parties interested, also as promptly as possible, all the information just referred to;

"(c) Indicate the wages paid for farm work; "(d) Make known the new diseases of vegetables which may appear in any part of the world, showing the territories infected, the progress of the disease, and, if possible, the remedies which are effective in combating them;

"(e) Study questions concerning agricultural coöperation, insurance, and credit in all their aspects; collect and publish information which might be useful in the various countries in the organization of works connected with agricultural coöperation, insurance, and credit;

"(f) Submit to the approval of the governments, if there is occasion for it, measures for the protection of the common interests of farmers and for the improvement of their condition, after having utilized all the necessary sources of information, such as the wishes expressed by international or other agricultural congresses or congresses of sciences applied to agriculture, agricultural societies, academies, learned bodies, etc.

"All questions concerning the economic interests, the legislation, and the administration of a particular nation shall be excluded from the consideration of the institute.

"ARTICLE 10. The nations adhering to the institute shall be classed in five groups, according to the place which each of them thinks it ought to оссиру. The number of votes which each nation shall have and the number of units of assessment shall be established according to the following gradations:

"ARTICLE II. The present convention shall be ratified and the ratifications shall be exchanged as soon as possible by depositing them with the Italian Government."

On March 27, 1906, the Italian ambassador at Washington was able to announce that "the States which were represented at the conference of last year at Rome . . . have now all sanctioned by the signature of their plenipotentiaries, the Convention drafted at that Conference." As appears from a copy transmitted, the convention had been signed by the plenipotentiaries of forty nations, including twelve American republics besides the United States. At the second general meeting of the institute at Rome, Dec. 12, 1909, at which more than one hundred foreign delegates were present, Victor Emmanuel III of Italy bestowed upon it a yearly allowance of 300,000 lire. This generous grant was used in the construction of a palace, which the institute now occupies. The organization carried on its work throughout the duration of the World War, supplying the data upon which all food commissions based their plans for conservation. Today (1921) fifty-eight nations are members of the institute and until his recent death David Lubin had a goodly share in its fine work. Upon learning that Belgium, Germany and Italy were far better organized for farm credit than the United States, he urged the United States to appoint a commission to study coöperation in rural credit and finance. This they did, and partly as a result of the work of this commission we have the establishment of the Federal Farm Loan banks. in 1916.

AGRIGENTUM (Acragas), one of the youngest of the Greek colonies in Sicily, founded about 582 B. C. by the older colony of Gela, became in the fifth century B. C. one of the largest and most splendid cities of the age, as is testified by its ruins. It was the scene of the notorious tyranny of Phalaris, as well as that of Theron. Agrigentum was destroyed by the Carthaginians, 405 B. C., and rebuilt by Timoleon, but never recovered its former importance and grandeur. -E. Curtius, History of Greece, bk. 4, ch. 3. See SICILY: B. C. 409-405.-It was the scene of a great defeat of the Carthaginians by the Romans, in 262 B. C. See PUNIC WARS: First.

AGRIPPA, Baths of. Among the principal Roman baths said to have been built 21 B. C. immediately behind the Pantheon. See BATHS.

AGRIPPA, Herod, I. (c. B. C. 10-A. D. 44), king of Judea, the grandson of Herod the Great; was a great favorite with Gaius (Caligula) who gave him jurisdiction over Batanæa and Trachonitis, later adding the tetrarchy of Herod Antipas (A. D. 39), whose banishment he procured.— See also Jews: B. C. 40-A. D. 44; CHRISTIANITY: A. D. 33-70.

AGRIPPA, Herod, II (A.D. 27-100), the last of the descendants of Herod the Great; king of Judea, following his father Agrippa I; deprived of the tetrarchy of Chalcis by Claudius in A. D. 53. See also JEWS: B. C. 40-A. D. 44.

AGRIPPA, Marcus Vipsanius (63-12 B. C.), Roman general and statesman; advisor to the emperor Augustus who succeeded Julius Cæsar (44 B. C.); carried on successful expeditions against the Aquitanians and the Germans 38 B. C.; was made consul in 37 B. C.; defeated Pompeius at Mylæ, 36 B. C., and was responsible for the victory at Actium (31 B. C.).

AGRIPPINA, the "younger" (A. D. 16-59), daughter of Agrippina the elder and sister of Gaius (Caligula). She was the mother of Nero whom she placed upon the throne through intrigue. Nero

had her put to death.-See also ROME: A. D. 4754: and A. D. 54-64.

AGUESSEAU, Henri Francois d' (16681751), illustrious chancellor of France; at twentyone was appointed advocate-general to the Parlia ment of Paris and procurator-general in 1700.

AGUILA, Don Juan de: Commander of Spanish fleet sent to aid Ulster. See ULSTER: 1585-1608. AGUILAR Y CORREA, Antonio, Marqués de la Vega de Armijo (1824-1909), Spanish statesman. Associated with the Union Liberal party, 1855-1866; in 1873 became ambassador to France; played a prominent part in frustrating the plans of the Carlists. Held many ministerial positions in Spain, among others, minister of state.

AGUINALDO, Emilio (1870- ), a Filipino mestizo of Chinese and Tagolog parentage, and the leader first of the revolt against Spain, and then of the insurrection against the United States He was educated at the College of San Juan de Letrán and at the University of St. Thomas in Manila. He became mayor of Cavité Viejo While still a very young man, he became interested in the liberal movement in the Philippines. When the insurrection of 1896 was suppressed, he was the chief of the revolutionary leaders exiled by Spain to Hongkong. (See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS 1896-1898). With Hongkong as a center, Aguinaldo contrived to continue his machinations against Spain until they culminated in the insurrections of 1898, when he returned to Manila to aid the United States against Spain. (See U. S. A: 1898 (April-May): Philippines). Aguinaldo arrived in Manila May 19, 1898, and proceeded to organize the insurgent forces. Although Aguinal do's first attitude towards the United States in the Philippines was one of welcome and coöperation, he gradually became antagonistic toward the American army, and with him also many of the more notable Filipinos. (See U. S. A.: 1898 (JulyAugust): Philippines). When the manifesto es tablishing a protectorate over the Philippines was issued, Aguinaldo, who had proclaimed himself president of the Philippine Republic (see U. S. A. 1898 (July-September)), met it with a counterproclamation asserting the independence of the islands, saying, "The United States did not take me out of Hongkong to make war for their own benefit." (See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: 1898-1800: December-January). This manifesto he followed with an armed insurrection against the United States forces. After three years' fighting Aguinaldo was forced to flee to the mountains of Luzon. (Sec PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: 1899: Armed opposition to establishment of American government.) He was finally captured in 1901 by Brigadier-General Funston at Palawan, Luzon, and capitulated with some grace by issuing an address to his countrymen asking them to acknowledge the sovereignty of the United States. (See PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: 1901: Extablishment of civil government). He retired from public life.

A. H. (Anno hejirae). See CHRONOLOGY Era of the hegira.

AHENOBARBUS ("brazen-bearded”), a plebeian family of Rome, the name being derived from the peculiar fact that most of the members of the family had red hair or beards. Some of the members of this family were: Gnæus Domitius Aheno barbus, tribune (104 B. C.), Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, consul in 54 B. C., and Gnæus Domitius Ahenobarbus, son of the above, consul in the year 32 B. C. and supporter of Octavius against Antony.

AHMAD SHAH (1724-1773), the founder of the Durani dynasty in Afghanistan; led a revolt of