With regard to the aspect best adapted to orchards, the surface, in general, should be more or less undulating, and at the same time, sheltered from the extremes of heat and cold; and it has often been remarked, that abrupt acclivities, which are too steep for tillage by the plough, or for the pasturage of heavy cattle, have been more certain in the production of fruit. Very open, or very elevated, exposed situations, as well as the bottoms of deep-sunk valleys, are alike unfavourable to the perfection of orchards. The former, from the low temperature and the violence of the winds, and the latter, from the liability to cold fogs and late vernal frosts, at the time the trees are in blossom, often, in one fatal night, utterly destroy the husbandman's hopes. A severe frost in early autumn, in a single night, may prove equally fatal to the tender flower-buds, in the latter situation, or, if not fatal, sufficiently injurious to impair their vitality, and render them unfit to withstand the cold of the ensuing winter; and, should they escape and put forth the following spring, the fruit will be knotty, blotched, and unfair. In planting an orchard, therefore, in Britain, or in the northern parts of AngloAmerica, the site should not be chosen

"In lowly vale, fast by a river side,'

nor, on the contrary, at an elevation too much exposed, but on moderately sheltered southern slopes, and where choice will further permit, inclining rather to the east than to the west. Planting the rows in a northerly and southerly direction, is thought to be advantageous, in order that the trees may derive the greatest benefit from the sun. But in the middle and western sections of the United States, more especially if the locality be in the region of large bodies of water, a northern exposure has proved to be decidedly more certain in producing fruit, than slopes inclining towards the south.

Propagation and Management. The 'yrus malus, and all its varieties, may be propagated from seeds, by grafting, or inoculation, and by cuttings and layers. It is a prevailing opinion in England, that the hardiest and best stocks are those which are raised from the seeds of the wild crab, (P. m. acerba,) and Mr. Knight recommends that the pips should be taken from the fruit before it is pressed. The mode practised in the Goldworth nursery, where fruit-tree stocks are raised on a more extensive scale than anywhere else in Britain, is to gather the crabs when they are fully ripe, and to lay them either in a heap to rot, or to pass them between two fluted rollers, and then to press out the juice, which is thus converted into an inferior kind of cider, and afterwards to separate the seeds from the pomace by maceration in water, and sifting. It is the opinion of many persons, both in Europe and in America, that it is of little consequence whether they are particular in the selection of seeds for sowing, from the fact that the fruit of trees raised from pips of the same apple differ both from the parent tree and from each other. But let it be considered that, when these variations take place, they may not always tend to deteriorate the fruit, but may often result in an exchange of one good quality for another, or may perhaps even exhibit improvements in the qualities. For instance, we may, at least, expect to obtain early fruit from the seeds of that which is early, and from those of late fruit the reverse; and by parity of reason, from sweet or sour, from juicy or dry fruit, we may also expect to obtain seedlings that will, in a considerable degree, correspond to their origin-a result, which it may often be an object for the cultivator to secure. Indeed, if it be true, that it is of "little consequence" what kind of pips we employ, there certainly can be no detriment in sowing seeds of good fruit; and this, we conceive, will be a sufficient hint for the prudent nurseryman to observe, The pomace, therefore, should be obtained from the apples of healthy and vigorous trees, and should be thickly strewed, and covered with earth, in shallow trenches about eighteen inches apart, so as to admit of the young plants being

well hoed and weeded by hand in the following summer. Immediately after the fall of the leaf, in the ensuing autumn, the strongest and the most vigorous plants may be drawn, and planted in rows eighteen inches apart, and the same distance from each other, in a soil previously trenched, manured, and cultivated for garden produce. The remaining plants should be similarly managed in the following year. During their second and third year's growth, the ground should be kept perfectly free from weeds by repeated hoeings, and the plants would be greatly benefitted by a light forking between the rows. No knife should be allowed to touch them in this stage, unless it be to shorten an over-rampant shoot, which may be making too strong a diversion from the stem, and not even then, if it be more than a foot from the ground, particularly when it is intended to graft the stem; for every twig and every leaf contributes to the growth of the root and stem. When the stems of the plants have acquired half an inch or more in diameter, at a foot from the ground, the head should be cut off, and the operation of grafting or inoculation performed.

In order to insure the most desirable sorts by means of grafts, the trees from which they are intended to be taken, should be carefully inspected and marked, in the autumn previous, or at the time the fruit is in the greatest perfection. A month or six weeks before the season of grafting arrives, cut your scions, and keep them buried, at length, in dry earth or clay, out of the reach of moisture and frost, until required for use, in order that the stocks may advance over them in forwardness of vegetation. Select your scions from the outside branches of healthy trees, just in their prime, or at full bearing, about midway in their heads, and rather on their sunny sides, where the juices of the wood have been properly digested by sun and air. If the trees from which they are to be taken be young and vigorous, let the shoots consist of the last summer's growth; but if the trees be old or sickly, take them from the most healthful branches in the centre of their tops, or what is still better, the young shoots which spring from their trunks near the ground. Grafting may also be performed with the shoots of the current year, as well as with those of several years' growth. The proper time for grafting, is when the sap of the stocks is in brisk motion, which occurs in deciduous trees a few weeks before they put forth their leaves; but re-productive evergreens may be grafted during summer as well as spring. After making choice of the proper season, and all things are in readiness, let the operation of grafting be performed as quickly as possible. For dwarf trees, head down the stocks to within a few inches of the ground, or even below the surface. For standard trees, or those designed to attain their full height, engraft on vigorous branches, situated about midway in their summits, and well exposed to the sun and air. Ordinarily, the scions may be from one fourth of an inch to one inch in diameter; but, if necessity requires, they may be much larger or smaller. The middle portion of the scion is best; but where there is a scarcity, both the top and bottom parts may be used. Take off a little of the lower end of the scion first, and then cut it of such a length as to leave from two to five eyes or buds for the production of new shoots, always taking care to cut off the top in a slanting direction. Two eyes will be sufficient for a standard tree, but four or five are better for dwarfs which are intended to be trained. Let the stocks and scions, if possible, be of the same thickness, in order that the inner barks of both will exactly unite and facilitate the flow of the sap, the immediate object being to bring the bark and young wood of both, into close and permanent contact, by which means the vessels of the one, will be enabled to communicate with those of the other. This operation is effected by several different methods, each of which have their advocates, and are adopted in various countries, according to the preference or caprice of the nurserymen. The modes which appear to be most generally approved of. in grafting young apple stocks, are what are called "Whip," or "Splice-graft

a

ing" for scions less than a half of an inch in diameter, and "saddle-grafting for those which are larger. Grafting upon old stocks and full-grown trees is usually performed by what is termed cleft-grafting. In whip-grafting, cut the stock (a) with a sharp knife, in an oblique direction without starting or bruising the bark, and the scion (b) in like manner of a corresponding angle. And then, with as little delay as possible, place the inner barks of the stock and scion in perfect contact, at least on one side, and bind them fast together with a riband of bass or guana, as indicated at (c.) In this part of the process, take particular pains and see that the junction of the two barks is not in the least displaced. To protect the grafted parts from drought, air, and moisture, a layer of green cow-dung and fresh loam, well mixed in equal proportions, should be applied, with a trowel or spatula, one inch thick on every side, and a little above and below the union of the stock and the scion. A mixture of three parts fine clay, and one part fresh horse-droppings, well incorporated together, may also be applied with success. A bandage of moss or tow is sometimes wound round the clay or mixture, to prevent it from cracking by the heat of the sun, and from washing away by rains. In making the incision in the side of the stock which is to receive the scion, the knife ought, if possible, to be entered at the base of a bud, and pass upwards. The reason of this is, that the vital principle is more powerful there; and that the germs, both of buds and roots, are, in most plants, confined to the joints of the stems; though in some, as in several varieties of the elm, they appear to be distributed equally over every part of the stem and roots.

In performing saddle-grafting, cut, with a sharp drawing-knife or other instrument, the stock (d) so as to leave the top in the form of a wedge. Split the lower end of the scion (e) and pare each side of the cleft, so as to fit, when seated, exactly on the top of the stock, with the inner barks of both in perfect contact. And then, with a bass riband, bind the parts strongly together, as at (f) and perform the operation of claying as in the preceding method. In three months or more after grafting, remove the clay, and partially loosen the bass ribands which are bound round the grafts, in order that the scions may have more room to expand. In a few weeks more, when the parts have been partially inured to the air, and when there is no danger of the scion being blown off by the winds, the whole of

the ligature may be removed. Should the grafts have much lateral motion, caused by the wind, they should be secured to a stake or a frame.

In grafting, as well as in transplanting trees, particularly those which are liable to be affected by the change of situation, as the magnolias, walnuts, &c., they should always be planted or inserted, in the same position, with reference to the sun as that in which they grew previous to their removal.

When the grafts have grown about two feet in height, the plants should be removed, or planted out in land similarly prepared as in the nursery beds, in rows four feet apart, with an equal distance between each, where they are to remain until finally removed. Before the plants are drawn from their graftingsites, no side-shoots should be cut off, except those below the graft. On their removal to open rows, any overgrown branch may be shortened, and two or three of the lowermost cut off close to the stem. After this, the stronger side-shoots only should be moderately shortened, in order to encourage the upward growth until a good head is formed, about six or seven feet above the ground. The side-shoots may then be removed close to the stem, in two successive years, while the head is left to its unrestricted growth. It is a very common, and at the same time, a very bad practice, to cut off all the side-shoots early, leaving only two or three twigs at the top, by which means the plant is very much checked in its growth, and instead of producing a firm and tapering stem, it becomes almost cylindrical, and tortuous, instead of upright. Those who treat plants in this way, are undoubtedly ignorant of the true nature of their growth, and the important office of their leaves; and, therefore, in attempting to assist nature in promoting the growth of the head, most injuriously interfere with her operations. If such persons had equal facility of witnessing the growth of the roots, they would no doubt think it their duty to cut part of them away, with a view of promoting the growth of the stem; at least, such a proceeding would be no less absurd. Every leaf is a feeder of the plant, as well as every rootlet; and no interference with the progress of the tree should be allowed, except for the purpose of preventing any side-branch becoming a rival to the head. When, however, the tree has attained the required height of stem, and the head has pushed forward strong shoots above that height, the whole of those on the stem may be finally cut away, as before directed, the stem having by this time gained sufficient substance and strength, to preserve its erect position, and to support the head.*

The subject of grafting necessarily involves that of the selection of the best varieties, whether they are new, or in the vigour of their bearing, or are intended for the cider-mill, the table, or the kitchen; but it would be quite incompatible with the speciality of this treatise to notice, even in a tabular form, one half of the apples recommended in nursery men's catalogues; and there are many other points connected with the management of orchards, which, for the same reason, must necessarily be omitted; but there is one particular connected with this subject, which we here beg leave to introduce.

A theory was advanced many years ago in England, and has lately been revived in that country, and is gaining ground in America, that the "chance of life in a scion is affected by the chance of life in the original seedling which began the species;" that is, when the natural period for the decline of the parent tree has arrived, the scions taken from it will also be found in a declining state, though growing upon stocks in other respects vigorous. The advocates of this theory contend, that each particular variety of apple has its period of vigour and decline, and its duration cannot be protracted by grafting beyond a certain limit; and what they conceive to be very remarkable, is, that within that natural limit, the grafts

* See Journ. Roy. Agr. Soc. of England, vol. iv., p. 384.

partake both of the vigour and decrepitude of the parent tree or variety. Although the period of duration is not known with any precision, it is thought to be longer in some varieties than in others. It is generally supposed, however, that it never much exceeds two hundred years. It seems that this opinion has chiefly arisen from the fact, that many kinds of the most celebrated European varieties have long since disappeared from their catalogues, and can now no longer be found; while many others, which were much esteemed in their "palmy days" of bearing, are fast approaching to extinction, and will soon no longer exist. Although the above hypothesis may seem plausible enough in itself, we cannot but remark, that the want of durability of the varieties in question, does not apply to every set of scions; for many sorts of apple, as well as several other kinds of fruit, appear to have been readily propagated by means of successive scions, from the times of our forefathers. For instance, the Newtown pippin, the parent stock of which has been dead for forty years, has been successfully cultivated for at least one hundred years from before that period, and is still to be met with in the highest perfection in the markets, both at home and abroad. Furthermore, experience has shown, that many of the scions of deteriorated varieties, have flourished for a time after grafting, and afterwards, have appeared to die, not from old age, but from disease. Thus Sharrock, who wrote in 1672, inquired "whether the canker in pippins arose not from incongruous grafting;" and Miller and Knight, of more recent times, each complained that pippins became cankered from a similar cause. Nevertheless, we do not wish to be understood, that the age of a tree is of little moment in the selection of scions; for, when a tree is evidently on the decline, an experienced nurseryman would not cull scions from it by choice, lest they should prove sickly and diseased; neither would he take them from a young tree, before it had arrived at its proper period of bearing. For every cutting taken from the apple, and probably from many other trees, will be affected by the state of the parent stock. If too young to produce fruit, it will grow with vigour, but will not blossom before it has passed through its successive periods of ripening wood; and if too old, it will immediately bring forth fruit, but will never make a healthy tree. It may further be stated, that stocks often so much influence the scions engrafted upon them, by habit, if from no other cause, that their fruit is essentially different from that borne on the parent tree; and both stocks and scions, in being transferred to different soils or situations, often improve or deteriorate in the character of their fruit, sometimes becoming more healthful, and at others more sickly and diseased. That most ingenious and thoroughly practical people, the Chinese, have long since been familiar with the practice of grafting scion upon scion, one above another, several deep; but in order to secure the agreement between the stocks and scions, they engraft each stock and each scion from its own respective branches.

The propagation of the apple by budding or inoculation is also practised to a considerable extent, but it is thought by many to possess fewer advantages than by grafting. In this part of vegetable economy, it may be proper to remark, that every fruit-tree must have a certain age before it will produce fruit. For example, the peach will bear the third or fourth year from the stone; but an appletree from the seed, must be twelve or fifteen years old, to produce fruit in perfection. And it is remarkable, that scions or shoots from the top branches of a bearing tree are essentially of the same age as the tree itself, and those growing from the roots or trunk near the earth, are no older in point of maturity, than the tree was when of the height of the parts from which they spring. For a detailed description of the process of budding or inoculation, which will apply equally well to most fruit-bearing trees, the reader is referred to our articles on the orange and the peach, under the head of "Propagation," &c.

The apple, like the pear, may be grafted or inoculated on the common thorn;