general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this constitution for the United States of America."

The first of these six objects of government, namely: "To form a more perfect union," grew out of the fact that this government was to be a union of thirteen separate colonies. Omitting that, the remaining five points in this admirable exposition of the objects of government are observe them carefully: (1) To establish justice, (2) To insure domestic tranquillity, (3) To provide for the common defence, (4) To promote the general welfare, (5) To secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity.

JUSTICE. The first object is, therefore, to establish justice; to see that each person has his rights, and is not interfered with in the exercise of these rights.

PEACE. The second is to maintain the peace within the borders of the government, and the third to take care that peace is also preserved as against enemies from without.

THE GENERAL WELFARE. The fourth clause:-"To promote the general welfare"-is one that requires here our special attention. In the earlier times, as illustrated in the feudal system, the principal object of government seemed to be to protect the people from enemies from without; that is, from foreign nations, tribes, and peoples.

MILITARY GOVERNMENT. - The basis of this government was essentially military. In process of time, as the race progressed and improved, the danger from without diminished, and the danger from within increased; that is, the government found less to do in providing for the common defence, and more to do in insur

ing domestic tranquillity. To preserve the peace from wrong-doers within became more important than to preserve the peace from wrong-doers without. This condition of affairs after a time brought us to the second stage of the government theory. The first was the military period, to preserve from enemies without.

POLICE GOVERNMENT. -The second became the police period, to protect from wrong-doers within. During the past two or three hundred years this has seemed to be the particular province of government, to insure domestic peace and justice. The typical officers of government during this period were the magistrate, the constable or sheriff, and the judge.

A HIGHER IDEAL.-Within the last century, however, we have largely advanced into a third period of governmental theory, which has made more and more prominent the grand object and purpose of promoting the general welfare of all the people, of bearing constantly in mind the question, not what interferes with the public good, not to punish wrong-doing, but what will promote the public good, what will tend to right-doing. It is quite apparent at the present day that the government should occupy itself more and more with this province of its work, and that the government of the future will be not like the government of former times, a military despotism, nor like the government of a later period, a great police organization, but rather a great political corporation, whose duty it is to take such active measures as will best conduce to the highest welfare, to the greatest happiness of the people, constantly bearing in mind that we of the present generation, in view of the blessings received from the past, are in duty bound to provide for

future generations the best possible conditions for their development and happiness. This is "to secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity."

In this view of government the foundation principle would be, that the government has the right and is charged with the duty to promote the public welfare, by all legitimate measures in which that welfare can be better secured by the government than by individual, private enterprise.

SUMMARY. Let us then summarize the great duties of the government. They may be stated as follows: (1) To provide for the common defence against foreign nations, (2) To secure the people under the government against domestic violence and personal injustice, (3) To promote the general welfare of the people by carrying on all those great enterprises which are necessary, and which reason and experience show can be better carried on by the government than by private means. Under this head we have found the town government maintaining schools and building highways. We shall hereafter find that our national government establishes and maintains post-offices, by which correspondence can be conducted and printed information disseminated throughout the whole country, easily, promptly, and at slight expense.

The national government also maintains a light-house system for the general advantage and protection of commerce. It spends a large amount of money each year for the protection and improvement of harbors and rivers, also in the interests of commerce. It provides for broad and careful scientific observations, in order to secure those advantages which accrue from a better

knowledge of geography, astronomy, and the laws of physics, chemistry, meteorology, etc., etc.

The government surveys public lands and attends to the recording of deeds, which are the evidence of ownership in lands. We shall find that some of these matters are left to the national government, others to the state government, and yet others are managed by the county, and the city and town governments.

Some persons are of the opinion that it would be wiser to leave the post-offices, roads, light-houses, public education, and all matters of this kind to private enterprise. Such a movement, however, would result in disastrous failure. Many persons, on the other hand, are strongly of the opinion that, before many years, the government will find itself under obligation, in promoting the public good, to assume the control of the railroads of the country, telegraph, and telephone lines, and the work of the express companies. Undoubtedly the true rule which should govern in this matter is this: whatever the people in their individual capacity can do as well should be left in their hands. Whatever the public good requires that the government should undertake should be committed to the government.

The motto should be, "the best means to promote the greatest good to the greatest number." The ends to be sought are the most healthy development, the greatest good, the highest and largest happiness to the whole people. These are the functions of government.

CHAPTER III.

PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

To promote the welfare of the citizens is one of the proper objects of government. This alone would be a sufficient warrant for the establishment of a system of education by the government, but our American plan of public schools is also based upon the fundamental principle of self-preservation. It is an absolute necessity for a republican government.

Like

The perpetuity of a republic depends upon the intelligence and virtue of the people. A monarchy may best sustain itself by keeping the people in ignorance. the soldier in the army, the first duty of a subject is to obey. Yet it has been found that intelligence combined with the musket and the bayonet wins the battle. In a republic, however, which, as President Lincoln has said, is "a government of the people, for the people, and by the people," it is absolutely necessary that the people, the whole people, be intelligent.

EARLY PUBLIC SCHOOLS IN NEW ENGLAND. — Recognizing this, the founders of New England early established the principle, that the property of the state should be taxed to educate the children of the state. Hence public schools were established at a very early date in the New England colonies.

SCHOOLS AT THE WEST. - During the early part of this century large numbers of emigrants from New