21. Ought, only in distinct sense of duty or obligation. In speaking of debts, always owed, see ◊ 154. 25. Shall, see ◊ 148. 33. Will, see ◊ 147. 34. Wrought, little used, except as Adjective, wrought iron. 9. Let, to allow [Germ. lassen]; and let, to hinder, are from distinct roots. The latter is connected with adjective late (O.E. læt): compare Lat. tardo, retardo. Obs. Verbs of Class III. have in some cases lost inflected forms. Thus, an old past tense of cut occurs, kitte [Angus, p. 213]. (D.) CLASS IV. § 161. This Class is far too extensive to admit of all the Verbs belonging to it being enumerated. Moreover, it is continually being enlarged by the formation and introduction of new words, while the other classes continue limited in number. Among late additions to Class IV. may be mentioned the Verbs to electrify, to galvanise, to telegraph, to photograph, to stereotype, to fraternise, to guillotine, to lynch, to garotte-all forming their Past Tense in d or ed. Obs. Just as in Nouns the plural ending s has become the regular one [§ 31] so in Verbs the addition of the suffix d or ed has become the regular mode of forming the Past Tense. All the other processes are obsolete. But the strong forms [158] should not be looked upon as irregular, since they conform to what was the law of the language at the time when they arose. § 162. The following Verbs of Class IV. are enumerated because of their having peculiarities of formation: (a) Verbs ending in d, in which the Past Tense and Past Participle are formed by a simple change of d to t: The forms bent, blent, built, gilt, girt, &c. have arisen 1. Baken: "a cake baken on the coals" (1 Kings xix. 6)—obsolete. 4. Lade, laded, laden, now used specially of ships. Laden also in figurative sense, according to Matt. xi. 28, "ye that labour and are heavy laden." G 8. Shapen, Ps. li. 5. Now only adjectively, especially in compounds, mis-shapen, ill-shapen. 9. Shaven, nearly obsolete, except in adjectival sense, as a closely shaven beard. The only form used in E. V. Obs. Of the above, to saw appears to be the only one which never had a strong formation in the Past Tense. (c) Certain contracted forms :— Obs. So afraid is strictly Past Participle of the verb "to affray," to frighten, alarm. Stay is regular, stay, stayed, stayed. Staid as Adjective. § 163. The Verb am, was, been, cannot be classified, as each of these forms belongs to a separate root (§ 143, Obs. 1). So in Latin, s-um [for es-um] and fu-i are formed from totally distinct roots. Adverbs. § 164. Adverbs are words used with Verbs, Adjectives, and other Adverbs, to qualify or limit their application in some way: as, to speak eloquently (Adverb qualifying Verb); he shouted aloud (Adverb qualifying Verb); very good (Adverb qualifying Adjective); too soon (one Adverb qualifying another): see Syntax. Obs. An Adverb of time is sometimes used Adjectively for the sake of brevity: as, the then Mayor, § 282, § 165. Etymology of Adverbs.-Unlike the other parts of speech, Adverbs are almost without exception derived from other words. 1. Some Adverbs are derived from Nouns: as, needs (probably once a Possessive Case); whilom (at times, some time ago old Dative Plural); piecemeal, i.e. a piece at a time (mæl, "time," O. E.); abreast, ashore, away, across, aside (i.e. on-breast, on-shore, &c.); sideways, lengthways, &c. 2. Others are derived from Pronouns: as, here, hence, hither; there, thence, thither; where, whence, whither, whereon, wherever; as, than, &c. Obs. Those Adverbs that are derived from the Relative Pronoun, as where, when, whence, whereas, &c., retain the connective power which belongs to the Relative itself (89). The same is the case with the Adverbs while or whilst, as, than. Each of these words is Adverb and Conjunction in one. Thus, in the line "I know a bank | whereon the wild thyme grows" (Mids. N. Dr.) we have really two sentences. But they are so connected by the Relative Adverb This connective force is still more apparent in such sentences as the following:- i.e. and there I discovered, &c. "She fancied that she saw her first husband coming towards her. in the midst of the pleasure which she expressed ... when he reproached her in the 3. Very many are derived from Adjectives; as, badly, beautifully, wonderfully; once, twice, thrice; first, secondly, thirdly, &c. In other cases, Adjectives are used as Adverbs without being made to undergo any change: as, like (to sing like a bird); late (to arrive too late); pretty (pretty good): see § 167, Obs. 3. 4. Others are derived from Prepositions: as, to and fro (from); too ( = thereto); off; upwards, downwards, &c. In other cases Prepositions are used as Adverbs without being made to undergo any change: as, above (to dwell above); down (the clock has run down); in and out (in sense of at home, abroad). § 166. Classification of Adverbs.—Adverbs may be classified according to their meanings, as follows: N.B.-The following classified lists of words are not intended to be committed to memory, but simply to enable the pupil more readily to distinguish the great variety of Adverbs from other kinds of words. 1. Adverbs of TIME: as, when (interrogative and relative), now, then, while, whilst, whilom, before, afterwards, soon, presently, immediately, since, ago, to-morrow, yesterday, always, ever, never, by-and-by, &c. 2. Adverbs of PLACE: as, where, whence, whither (interrogative and relative), with their compounds: as, wherever, everywhere, nowhere, whithersoever, &c.; hence, thence, hither, thither, above, below, within, without, around, upwards, downwards, to and fro, &c. 3. Adverbs of SEQUENCE or ORDER: as, first (firstly), secondly, thirdly, lastly. 4. Adverbs answering the question, "How many times?" as, once, twice, thrice, often, seldom. 5. Adverbs of MANNER: as, how (interrogative and relative), well, ill, badly, wisely, foolishly, right, rightly, aright, aloud, &c. 6. Adverbs of DEGREE: as, very, too, almost, quite, rather, altogether; much, little, no (with a Comparative or Superlative: as, much better, little better, no better); also the before a Comparative [§ 231]; more, most, less, least. 7. Adverbs of INFERENCE and ARGUMENT: as, why (interrogative and relative), therefore, accordingly, hence, thence, whence [“ whence it follows. . ."]. 8. One Adverb of negation: not. Obs. 1. First is better than firstly. The latter is not given by Johnson at all, being of later date than the appearance of the Dictionary. The following instances show the usage of our standard writers:— "First, metals are more durable than plants; secondly, they are more solid and hard; thirdly, they are wholly subterraneous." (Bacon, in Johnson, s. v.) So Hume, Essays, i. 76; i. 96; &c. : "First.... "First. secondly. . . . thirdly." secondly." (Berkeley, Works, p. 7.) Obs. 2. Yes and no are sometimes called Adverbs. This is incorrect. They are substitutes for sentences, and not parts of sentences at all. Thus, in the question and answer-Are you willing?-Yes-the word yes is equivalent to the sentence, I am willing. The same may be said of the words called Interjections-oh, O, ah, alas, &c. They are compendious expressions, each equivalent to a sentence. [Word-Sentences.] § 167. Adverbs in -ly.-Adverbs of Manner and Sequence are usually formed by adding -ly to the Adjectives from which they are derived: as, beautiful, beautifully; bad, badly; wise, wisely. Adverbs ending in y not preceded by another vowel change y into i before -ly: as, pretty, prettily; hasty, hastily. But coy, coyly. Adjectives ending in -le simply change the e into y : as, single, singly; able, ably; terrible, terribly. Obs. 1. Gaily is now spelt thus, with i. In Johnson's time it was spelt either gaily or gayly. (Dict. s. v.) Obs. 2. Some Adjectives are also used as Adverbs without the addition of -ly; it may be, with a difference of meaning. Thus we say, the sun shines bright, as |