called the Festival of Childhood. Its celebration begins early in Nicaragua, being initiated even before the end of November with the period of adoration of the Virgin. Bearing fragrant bouquets of wild flowers for the altar of the Virgin, children throng the streets singing carols to the Queen of Heaven. Their exuberance reaches its peak on the morning of December 8, the Feast of the Immaculate Conception, and not until midnight does the noise of the horns, of the marimbas, and even of the merrymakers themselves fade away. On December 16, the faithful begin the celebration of their annual Novena to the Holy Child.

December 24 is a day of excitement for young and old. Parents reflect upon the best means of distributing the carefully guarded toys, and the children gaily participate in arranging the Nativity, the manger with its familiar wooden, plaster,

or cardboard figures of the Virgin, Saint Joseph, the angels, the shepherds and their sheep, and the mule and the ox. Palm trees, green sawdust, tinsel, and colored lights complete the picture. The manger lies empty, ready to receive at midnight the figure of the Infant Jesus. Overhead a great silver star is hung to guide the Three Wise Men on their journey from the east.

Everywhere is heard the prattling of the eager children. The mothers issue the final call to the Christmas Eve feast which, according to the purse of the family, will consist of turkey, a stuffed hen, or the humbler nacatamales. This especially savory tamale, made of ground corn with a filling of turkey, chicken, or pork and raisins, almonds, olives, and chili, wrapped in banana leaves, is found on every table at Christmas time. Wine, coffee, or chocolate may be served, with sopa borracha for dessert. The latter consists of slices of a plain cake made with corn meal or rice flour and covered with rum-flavored syrup.

The Novena to the Christ Child is concluded with the celebration of the Midnight Mass. The morning of Christmas Day itself is one of general rejoicing. The delight of the little ones on receiving the coveted assortment of new toys spreads contagiously to their elders, and relatives, friends, and servants all partake equally of the munificence of the Holy Child.

A recent innovation is the Anglo-Saxon custom of the Christmas tree, and it is not uncommon to find, in the room with the manger, a tree-usually artificial-laden with bright colored balls, wreaths, and icicles, and at its foot, gifts for all the members of the household.-A. S. D.

1

Economic Development

ASSISTANCE to Brazilian air lines in the period of postwar organization and development was granted by the Government of Brazil through Decree-Law No. 9483 of July 18, 1946. This measure applied a two-year consumer's tax exemption to all imports of parts and accessories for airplanes. (Diário Oficial, July 20, 1946.)

The capital of the Agricultural Production Development Section of the National Bank of Costa Rica was increased in the sum of 4.5 million colones (the colón equals $0.177 U. S.) by Legislative Decree No. 632 of July 23, 1946. This new increase brought the total working capital of that section of the Bank to 8 million colones. Certain taxes have been earmarked to cover any losses that the Agricultural Production Development Section may undergo in its operations, in order always to maintain the working capital at the 8-million level. Any surplus from the tax collections will be allocated to the establishment of a capital of 2 million colones for a section of the Bank for the development of agricultural and industrial cooperatives. Meantime, even before the new fund of 2 million colones is established, the Bank is authorized to make loans to organized cooperatives whenever such operations are considered desirable for the nation. (La Gaceta, July 31, 1946.)

1 Assisted in research by Clara Cutler Chapin and Mary G. Reynolds.

Export, import, price, funds, and other controls

According to La Prensa, Buenos Aires, July 19, 1946, Argentine shoe manufacturers have been required by presidential decree to apply at least 10 percent of their total production to the manufacture of low-cost shoes for infants, children, and adults, in such manner that not less than 900,000 pairs can be produced in the following five months. The decree further stipulates that the shoes must conform to certain standard samples. Shoe retailers are also obliged to acquire and offer these low-priced shoes for sale in certain fixed proportions of their average shoe sales. during the first half of the current year. A few weeks of experience demonstrated the desirability of changes in Costa Rica's decree of June 7, 1946, that fixed priorities for the expenditure of foreign exchange derived from exports (see BULLETIN, October 1946, p. 577). Executive Decree No. 35 of July 25, 1946, repealed the earlier decree and substituted therefor new priority regulations. Imports for which foreign exchange will be made available are divided into three categories. The first includes specified foodstuffs, textiles, clothing, pharmaceutical supplies, petroleum products, paper, paints, industrial and farm machinery, building materials, cattle, fertilizers, seeds, and other miscellaneous commodities essential to national life. The second category consists of such articles as photographic equipment, radios, automobiles, bicycles, motorcycles, electric re

frigerators, and specified food and clothing items. The third category covers all current imports not enumerated in the other two lists. (La Gaceta, July 27, 1946.)

The difficulties of securing foreign exchange had for some time been causing trouble to Costa Rican importers, who were unable to get their goods out of customs promptly. While the Government expected this situation eventually to adjust itself, it was considered advisable to take steps to avoid any further increase in the price of imported articles. Therefore, Presidential Decree No. 40 of August 1, 1946 granted free storage in customs warehouses for one month for dutiable imports, while the time on duty-exempt goods was reduced to 10 days. The month's free storage would enable importers to arrange for payment for their goods, and no storage charges would have to be added to the ultimate cost of the imports to the consumer. (La Gaceta, August 2, 1946.)

Increased costs of petroleum production and distribution in Mexico led to a price increase, both wholesale and retail, for gasoline throughout the Republic, authorized by a decree of September 10, 1946, and effective on publication in the Diario Oficial of September 17, 1946.

Of importance to motor transportation in Guatemala was a presidential resolution of July 20, 1946, which repealed wartime regulations requiring motor vehicle owners to turn in used tires when they purchased new ones. The same resolution required tire importing agencies to deliver to the Economic Stabilization Office their stocks of used tires, and this Office in turn was authorized to sell the used tires. (Diario de Centro América, July 31, 1946.)

Following an emergency agreement between the Government of Guatemala and national cement producers on July 17, 1946, a Cement Distribution Commission was established by a presidential

resolution of July 23. Its duty will be to attain an equitable distribution of that important product. The resolution outlines in detail the system of applications and assignments to be followed, and gives the Minister of Economy authority to fix prices for the sale of both domestic and imported cement. As long as the need for cement continues to be urgent, all exports of the product are prohibited. (Diario de Centro América, August 7, 1946.)

Complaints of bakers and the general public about the excessively high price of domestic and imported wheat in Guatemala caused the Economic Stabilization Office of that country to undertake a study of the matter. This study revealed that the price increases of recent months had been unjustified and the Ministry of Economy and Labor therefore issued a resolution fixing both prices for flour and maximum profits for flour importers and retailers. (Diario de Centro América, July 18, 1946.)

Authority to import oils and fats to meet national demands during the remainder of 1946 was granted to the National Production Council of Costa Rica by Legislative Decree No. 679 of August 22, 1946. The Council was authorized to enter into agreements with importers that will permit the latter to do the importing, providing they furnish sufficient guarantee that the goods will arrive and be properly distributed. these cases the Council will also determine the selling price and will furthermore maintain throughout the emergency sufficient quantities of oils and fats to form a buffer stock. (La Gaceta, August 23, 1946.)

In

New regulations concerning the sending of funds abroad were issued by the Department of the Treasury of Mexico on June 8, 1946. Special authorization is required

now only for sending funds to Germany, Japan, Austria, Rumania, Hungary, and Bulgaria. The only restriction on transfers of funds to other countries is that the transfers must not affect blocked funds. The same regulations apply to orders of payment received from abroad in Mexico. All operations with any country referring to gold, however, still require special authorization from the Bank of Mexico, in

accordance with existing regulations. (Diario Oficial, September 10, 1946.)

Unrestricted circulation of United States currency in denominations of 50 and 100 dollars was authorized by an executive decree in Costa Rica on July 26, 1946. A previous decree had already removed wartime currency restrictions from 5-, 10-, and 20-dollar United States bills. (La Prensa Libre, San José, July 27, 1946.)

Uruguay

One of the achievements of women in the Americas this last year was the law concerning women's civil rights passed by the General Assembly of Uruguay on September 11. This is considered one of the most liberal on the American continent. The passage of the law is considered to be chiefly due to Señora Sofía A. V. de Demichelli, a Senator and also delegate of Uruguay on the Inter-American Commission of Women. The bill was sponsored in the Chamber of Deputies by Señorita Magdalena Antonelli Moreno. Some important articles of the law are:

CIVIL RIGHTS OF WOMEN

ARTICLE 1. Men and women have equal civil rights.

ARTICLE 2. A married woman can freely administer and dispose of her own property, of its increment, of the product of her activities, and of all properties that she may acquire, without prejudice to the provisions of Article 5 of this law.

If the marital association is dissolved, the amount of the community property acquired after marriage shall be equally divided between husband and wife, or their respective heirs.

ARTICLE 4. The creditors of one spouse may

claim payment only from his or her property and from the community property which he or she administers according to law or to the pre-marital agreement (Article 1938 of the Civil Code).

ARTICLE 5. Real property acquired as community property in the name of one spouse or both cannot be transferred or made the subject of any lien without the expressed agreement of both husband and wife. Similar agreement must be given in the case of transfer of a business, agricultural, stock-raising, or industrial enterprise, if it is part of the community property.

ARTICLE 6. At any time, either husband or wife or both together may request, without stating a reason, the dissolution and liquidation of the marital association.

ARTICLE 9. The conjugal domicile shall be fixed by agreement between husband and wife. ARTICLE 10. Both husband and wife shall contribute to the expense of the home in proportion to their means.

ARTICLE 11. Guardianship of children shall be exercised by husband and wife together unless limited or suspended by judicial action.

ARTICLE 12. When minor children have property, husband and wife shall decide which of them shall administer this property, except in the cases provided for in the Civil Code.

ARTICLE 13. Either husband or wife can request action by the judge of the Juvenile Court to prevent or correct acts or proceedings on the part of the other considered prejudicial to the person or property of a minor child, in accordance

with the provision of Articles 1943 et seq. of the Children's Code.

ARTICLE 14. The provisions of the foregoing articles also apply to illegitimate children recognized by the father and mother and to cases of adoption and legitimation by adoption, effected by both husband and wife.

ARTICLE 15. A widow or divorced woman who remarries shall keep all rights of guardianship entrusted to her as well as the administration of the property involved, which she shall carry on with entire independence of her new husband. In all circumstances the provisions of Article 113 of the Civil Code shall apply.

ARTICLE 16. There shall be created in the General Register of Attachments and Judgments a section in which the following shall be noted: a. Pre-marital agreements.

b. Decisions dissolving the marital association. c. Agreements by parents on the administration of property of minor children and any other legal matters connected therewith.

ARTICLE 18. When husband and wife cannot agree on a decision required by the provisions of Articles 11 et seq. of this law, either of them may take the matter before the courts.

Señorita Esmeralda Escuder, teacher of music appreciation and phoniatrics, has a fellowship to study in her field at Martin Hall Institute, Rhode Island. She had previously been sent to study in Berlin and Paris by the Commission of Elementary and Normal Education. Cuba

WOMEN Continue to play an important part in public life, as may be seen by the following instances.

The Chairman of the National Social Welfare Board is a woman, Dr. Dolores Machín de Upman. Two members are Señora María Montalvo de Soto Navarro and Señora Elena Mederos de González, the latter delegate of Cuba to the InterAmerican Commission of Women.

Señorita Elena Pujals is the architect in charge of plans for a home that will house 150 children, a home for the aged, and two day nurseries. Miss Mary Labarce,

Children's Bureau, United States Department of Labor, went to Cuba by request to offer suggestions for these buildings.

The coveted Justo de Lara prize, awarded annually to a journalist, was won this year by Señorita Mirta Aguirre, a well-known poet and newspaper woman.

On the faculty of the Catholic University of Santo Tomás de Villanueva are Doctors Teresa Ganaldo de Cruz, Mercedes García Tudurí, and Rosaura García Tudurí. Dominican Republic

The Graduate Nurses' Association of the Dominican Red Cross conferred on Señorita Minerva Bernardino, Chairman of the Inter-American Commission of Women, a certificate of honorary membership. In extending thanks for this courtesy Señorita Bernardino gave an address discussing some of today's vital social problems.

Señorita Edna Garrido of Ciudad Trujillo has arrived in the United States to study folklore at the University of North Carolina during the academic year 19461947. She has collected a large amount of folklore material in her own country. United States

Miss Frieda S. Miller, Director of the Women's Bureau of the Department of Labor, was named as Substitute Delegate, also as adviser, to the United States delegation to the twenty-ninth session of the International Labor Conference in September in Montreal. Miss Mary M. Cannon, Chief, International Division, Women's Bureau, was one of the two secretaries to the United States delegation.

Miss Frances Perkins, formerly Secretary of Labor, was appointed by President Truman to membership on the Civil Service Commission. As one of the three Civil Service Commissioners, she will be the only woman in the Administration who will report directly to the President.