year. He has two brothers and three sons. The right of succession is in the male line, provided the Emperor does not nominate, as he may do, his successor. The only hereditary nobility is that of the imperial house or clan, which is divided into twelve orders, and governed by a distinct court under the emperor.

The next principal legal distinction in society is the eight privileged classes which, with the imperial family, constitute the nine ranks of civilians. These ranks are not hereditary but honorary distinctions, and the privilege affects only the degree of punishment of offenders in each rank. The word mandarin is from the Portuguese, and is applied by foreigners, without any authority but wrong usage, to all ranks and officers in the empire.)

Besides these distinctions the mass of the people are further subdivided into different clans, guilds, societies, professions and communities, all of which in some degree assist them against a corrupt magistracy, and enable them to preserve their proprietary if not their personal rights tolerably secure.

The Emperor is assisted in his deliberations by the NuI KOн, or Cabinet, which consists of four ta hioh-sz', or principal, and two hiepan ta hioh-sz', or joint-assistant Chancellors, half Manchus and half Chinese. Under these are ten assistants called hioh-sz', or "learned scholars." The first of the four Chancellors is esteemed the Premier. The present premier of China is Muchangah, à Manchu of great influence and power, and probably an able man; he has held the station twelve

years.

The Kuin-ki Chu, or General Council, composed of princes of the blood, Chaneellors of the Cabinet, the presidents and vice presidents of the six Boards, and chief officers of all the other courts in the capital, selected at the Emperor's pleasure, corresponds somewhat to a ministry. The King Chau, i. e. Court Transcripts, usually called the Peking Gazette, is compiled from the records of the General Council, and is equivalent to our "official organ."

The principal executive bodies in the capital under these two councils are the Luh Pu, or Six Boards :

1. The Li Pu, or Board of Civil Office. 2. The Hu Pu, or Board of Revenue.

3. The Li Pu, or Board of Rites. 4. The Ping Pu, or Board of War. 5. The Hing Pu, or Board of Punish

ments.

6. The Kung Pu, or Board of Works. After these come several important courts:

1. The Li Fan Yuen, or Court for the government of Foreigners, commonly called the Colonial Office.

2. The Tu-chah Yuen, i. e. "All-examining Court or Censorate," a kind of perpetual Grand Jury.

3. The Tung-ching Sz', a small body of six officers to receive memorials from provincial authorities, or popular appeals from their judgments, and present them to the Cabinet.

4. The Ta-li Sz', or Court of Judicature, a kind of Supreme Court, whose jurisdiction is mostly criminal.

5. The Hanlin Yuen, or Imperial Academy, which is intrusted with the drawing up of national documents, histories, and other works.

There are also the Taichang Sz' or Sacrificial Court; the Taipuh Sz', or Superintendent of H. I. M.'s Stud; the Kwanghih Sz', or Banqueting House; the Hunglu Sz', or Ceremonial Court; the Kwohtsz' Kien, or National College; the Ksn Tien Kien, or Imperial Astronomical [including Astrological] College; and the Tai P Yuen, or Supreme Medical Hall.

The other courts of the capital appear to have been subdivided and multiplied to a great degree to give employment to Manchus and to graduates who come from every part of the empire, and thus to strengthen the power of the throne. The total number of civilians in employ is estimated at fourteen thousand, but those dependent on government are many times this amount.

Besides this general government, the eighteen provinces of the empire are incorporated under eleven governments, over which are eight tsungtuh or governors general, fifteen fuyen, nineteen treasurers, eighteen judges, seventeen literary chancellors, fifteen commanders of the forces, and 1740 prefects of districts. The higher grades of these provincial officers report themselves every month to the throne, sending his majesty a salutatory card on yellow paper in a silken envelope, wishing

him repose. The Emperor or his secretary replies with the vermilion pencil, Chinngan, i. e. Ourself is well.

The appointment of officers in China being theoretically based on literary merit, the hioching or chancellor of a province is a high officer, and ranks next to the fuyen. Below the district magistrates come a host of subalterns in all departments.

In the administration of the laws there is so much jealousy of superiors and inferiors, and such a complete system of espionage as tends to destroy honorable fidelity and make bribery, corruption, and extortion thrive. Yet on the whole it is generally the honest and equitable officers who rise. The bad ones get pasquinaded by placards stuck up in the streets, while the good become extremely popular. The higher officers are generally able men.

Their peculiar manner of appealing to ultimate truths in their state papers is sometimes quite amusing. Commissioner Lin, whose only fault was the universal national bigotry, thus began a letter to the Queen of England respecting the interdiction of opium:-"Whereas the ways of Heaven are without partiality, and no sanction is allowed to injure others in order to benefit one's self, and that men's natural feelings are not very diverse (for where is he that does not abhor death and love life?)—therefore your honorable nation, though beyond the wide ocean, at a distance of twenty thousand li, also acknowledges the same ways of Heaven, the same human nature, and has the like perceptions of the distinctions between life and death, benefit and injury." The Commissioner made the old mistake of supposing too much moral perfection in humanity. How differently spoke Lord Melbourne in a subsequent debate in the House of Lords:"We possess immense territories peculiarly fitted for raising opium, and though he would wish that government were not so directly concerned in the traffic, he was not prepared to pledge himself to relinquish it," &c., &c His Lordship evidently saw the subject in another light.

| mate object, but it is at an infinitely greater waste of labor. All departments with them are more corrupt. They suffer from petty exactions. Men are often robbed among them, houses burnt and women stolen. Justice sells at a cheaper rate than here. The reports of their trials are summary. Substitution is allowed for punishment, and whoever can pay may even find men who will suffer death in his place to procure a provision for their families. Torture is still used in their courts. They have riots and insurrections worse than those of Philadelphia. But it is after all a great fact in the world's history that such an immense pagan population should have gone on so long, and subdued and replenished so large a portion of the earth's surface.

It shows how a single conservative principle, that of reverence for the past, will sustain a people under all the pressure of sin, and dimly enlighten their path for ages through the thick darkness of natural religion. The same principle that lies at the foundation of their government also points out the only road to ambition under it. Reverence for the past has perpetuated a test of merit never applied in any other nation. The Chinese are a race of pedants. Their whole mind turns backward. With a reverence for learning that has led them to make scholarship the chief means of attaining distinction, they cling to old dogmas with a tenacity that leaves no strength for original thinking. From their earliest years the writings of their ancient sages are the only study. Their schools are very strict. Boys acquire in them their strange language and their classical taste at the same time; and it is probable that the classic writings are so far a key to the difficulties of their tongue that each helps to perpetuate the other.

There are four literary degrees. The first, siulsai, is flowering talent. To ob

ment.

i. e., having a name in the village. The strictness of this primary examination may be judged from the instances of two districts in 1832, when the number of candidates was 2000, and only 13 in one district and 14 in another obtained the hien ming; the entire population of the districts was a million and a half. The next examination is before the prefect of the departIf the successful in each district were in the above proportion, there would be generally 200 candidates. The examination is conducted in the same way, and is still more rigorous than the first; the degree is called fu ming, having a name in the department. The successful are eligible to a third trial in the provincial city, at which those who again succeed receive the degree of siutsai, which has been translated "bachelor of arts."

In the province of Kwangtung, (Canton,) with a population by the census of nineteen millions, there are about 12,000 bachelors. In the city the number of all who have obtained literary degrees is only 300. This degree exempts its possessors from corporal punishment, renders them conspicuous in their native place, and eligible as candidates for the next degree above. It may be obtained by purchase, from $200 up to $1,000 and more being the price, but that does not entitle the possessor to strive higher.

The second degree is that of ku-jin, or "promoted men, and entitles its possessors to become officers. The examinations are held triennially in each provincial city of the empire, about the middle of September. Each city has a great hall with numerous cells arranged around an open court. The hall at Canton will accommodate 10,000. The candidates before entering are registered and then searched, to see that no miniature editions of the classics are found upon them, or anything which can assist in the tasks. If anything be found upon them, they are punished with the cangue, (the board around the neck,) degraded from the first degree and prohibited another trial; their fathers and tutors are also punished. The furniture of each cell consists of two boards, contrived for a seat and eating table and writing desk. Every menial and officer who enters is searched, and the place carefully guarded by soldiers. The examination |

lasts three days, and the confinement in the cramped cells often kills old students, who enter again and again in hope of at last succeeding. Father, son, and grandson have sometimes appeared at the same examination. When any one breaks any of the regulations, his name is "pasted out" on the outside of the hall, and he is dismissed till another time. More than a hundred persons are thus "pasted out" every examination.

66

There are four themes given out the first day, one of which must be in poetry. These are sentences from the classics. In 1828 the 4800 candidates were exercised upon these :-"Tsangtsz' said, 'To possess ability, and yet ask of those who do not; to know much and yet inquire of those who know little; to possess and yet appear not to possess; to be full and yet appear empty." He took hold of things by the two extremes, and in his treatment of the people maintained the golden medium." "A man from his youth studies eight principles, and when he arrives at manhood, he wishes to reduce them to practice." The fourth essay was to be in pentameters, "The sound of the oar and the green of the hills and water." These four themes are from the Four Books; the next day five are selected from the Five Classics; and the last five, topics concerning doubtful affairs of state, are proposed. These take a free range of discussion.

Twenty-five days are allowed for the ten members of the examining board to read the essays, which, at the usual proportion, would be about 260 each, per diem-an agreeable task! But it is dangerous for an examiner to return any unread. One candidate printed his, thus returned, which led to his own dégradation, the punishment of the examiner, and the passing a severe law against it in future.

On the 9th or 10th of the moon, the names of the successful are proclaimed by a crier from the highest tower in the city, and next morning the list is hawked about the streets and sent to all parts of the province. Then come salutes and public and social banquets and rejoicings for the victors; of whom there are about 1300 every three years, all over the empire.

The third degree, tsinsz, "entered scholars," is conferred after another exami

nation, every three years at Pekin. The travelling expenses to court are sometimes paid by government. The number admitted varies from 150 to 400. They are all presented to the Emperor, and their names inscribed in the Board of Civil Office, as candidates for office on the first vacancy. At this examination many are degraded from the previously acquired standing for incompetency, and forbidden to appear again.

The highest degree of hanlin constitutes one a member of the Imperial Academy, and entitles him to a salary. It is conferred in presence of the highest personages of the realm.

This system is said to be extremely imperfect in practical operation. Private marks are placed upon the themes, and a sufficient sum previously given to the examiner, is very sure to soften the severity of his criticisms. Eight thousand dollars is said to be the price of a bachelor's degree at Canton. It is curious what power there is in money and influence, in all parts of the world. With all their checks, it is said that "it is surprising that any person can be so eager in his studies, or confident in his abilities, as even to think that he can get into office by them alone."

Considerable attention is paid to female education in China, and literary attainments are considered creditable to ladies, as well as small feet. The list of names of authoresses in their annals is a long one. Yuen Yuen, the Governor-general of Canton in 1820, while in office, published a volume of his deceased daughter's poetical effusions. (We have never read them, but have no doubt they are very fine.)

The Chinese language is understood by all educated men, among four millions of people. Their philologists arrange all its characters into six classes, called luh shu, or six writings:

The first, called siang hing, were originally intended as imitative symbols or pictures of the thing meant; but the resemblance in most of them has long disappeared. The number of these is 608.

The second class, only 107 in number, is called chi sz', i. e., imitative symbols indicating thought; for example, an image of the sun above the horizon, put for morning. These are combined of previous forms, and Chinese writers consider these

two classes as comprising all the ideographics in the language.

The third class, hwui í, i. e., combined ideas, comprises characters made up of two or three symbols, to express ideas deducible from their positions, but capable of being represented. Thus sun and moon are joined to mean brightness; woman and broom, signify wife. Of these there are 740.

The fourth class, chuen chu, "inverted significations," include such characters as, by some inversion or alteration, acquire a different meaning. Thus a hand turned to the right, means the right; to the left, the left. There are 372 of these.

These are

The fifth class, kiai shing, i. e. uniting sound symbols, contain 21,810 charactersnearly all the language. composed of a picture or imitative symbol, united to one which merely imparts a sound to the compound; the former usually partakes more or less of the new idea, while the latter loses its own meaning, and gives only its name. They differ from Arabic numerals, in that the latter can only indicate meaning and never sound. As an illustration of their origin, suppose the name of a new insect, called nan where it was found, was to be written for the first time. The writer would select some character that was known to have that sound, and join it with the symbol chung, meaning insect; then chung nan would mean the insect nan. Some might call it insect south, but the design of the combination would be the guide. If nan were called nam or lem, in some parts of the country, the people there would give it that name, and the others would not understand them, until the character was written. The similarity in sound of all combinations, into which the same sound character should enter, would be an assistant in reading the language, but not in understanding it.

The sixth class, called kia tsie, i. e. "honored uses," includes metaphoric symbols, frequently extremely fanciful; the number of these is 508. Child under shelter, makes one of these; it means the written character-characters being considered the well nurtured offspring of hieroglyphics.

The whole number in these six classes is 24,235, though Kanghi's dictionary

contains 44,449; but the first contains thousands that are obsolete and unusual. The burden of remembering so many complicated symbols, whose form, sound and meaning are all necessary to enable the student to read and write intelligibly, is so great that those in common use are abridged and made to bear many meanings. A good knowledge of ten thousand characters would be sufficient to read any work in Chinese or write on any subject; four or five thousand are sufficient for all common purposes, and two-thirds of that number might suffice.

Each character is a word, and must be learned separately, the sound giving but little clue to the meaning. For this reason the grammar of the language is confined to syntax and prosody. Of these the rules are simple. The characters are in general monosyllables, and have many sounds which cannot be written in English, and vice versa. Thus flannel in Chinese is fat-lan-yin; stairs, sz'-ta-sz'; impregnable, im-pi-luk-na-pu-h. There are three principal dialects and an endless variety of patois, called hiang tan or village brogue, an interpreter of which is attached to almost every officer's court to translate the peculiar phrases of witnesses. The difference between the court dialect and the Canton is illustrated by the sentence, I do

not understand what he says.

Court dialect.-Wo min puh tung teh ta kiang shim mo.

Canton dialect.-Ngo 'm hiu ki kong mặt nẻ.

This is almost as great a difference as any in the British Islands.

In surveying Chinese literature the authority is the Sz' Fu Tsiuen Shu Tsunmuh, or Catalogue of all the Books in the Four Libraries, i, e., Classical, Historical and Professional writings and Belles Lettres. At the head of the Wuh King is placed the Yih King, or Book of Changes, which is held in great veneration for its antiquity and occult wisdom. It was composed in prison by Wan Wang, the Literary Prince,

about B.C. 1150. It has formed the basis of a species of divination, and the great writers of China ever since Confucius have been endeavoring to explain its aphorisms. The Catalogue enumerates 1450 treatises, memoirs, digests, expositions, &c., on this single book.

The Shu King, or Book of Records. This is a series of dialogues on the early history of the empire, compiled by Confucius, and is full of wise maxims. Its morals for a pagan work are good. The knowledge of one true God is plainly intimated in it.

The Shi King, or Book of Odes, has another long list of commentators in the catalogue. The extracts from some of the odes are quite poetic. The following shows the rhyme of one of them :

Kien kia tsang tsang, Pih lu wei shwang; So wei í jin,

Tsai shwui yih fang.

"Green yet are the reeds and rushes, Though the white dews congeal in hoar frost ; That man of whom I speak

Is on the water's farthest shore."

Then comes the list of writers upon the Li Ki, or Book of Rites, which has been the great guide of Chinese manners and

customs.

It gives directions for all the actions of life. The state ceremoniary is founded upon it, and it is the statute book of the Board of Rites at Peking.

Commentaries on the last of the Five

Classics, the Chun Tsu, or Spring and Autumn Annals of Confucius, are next enumerated. These are followed by the vast number of expositors of the principles of the Five Classics as a whole. Then have based their works on the apothegms are given the writers on Filial Duty, who of Confucius. This is esteemed the highest of all the virtues. Toy books are written upon it for children. The three following stories are from a popular one called the Twenty-four Filials:-

named also Tsz'lu, who, because his family "In the Chan dynasty lived Chung Yu, was poor, usually ate herbs and coarse pulse; and he also went more than a hundred li to procure rice for his parents. Afterwards, when they were dead, he went south to the country of Tsu, where he was made commander of a hundred companies of chariots; there he became rich, storing up grain in myriads of measures, reclining upon cushions, and eating food served to him in numerous dishes; but sighing, he said, Although I should now desire to eat coarse herbs and bring rice for my parents, it cannot be !""

"Mang Tsung, who lived in the Tsin dy