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sian occupation, which is to be paid off by 1896, and a loan of 50,000,000 lei contracted in 1887. In addition to these obligations Bulgaria has engaged to pay 130,000 Turkish liras per annum as the Eastern Roumelian contribution. The Bulgarian tribute and share in the public debt of Turkey have not been fixed by the signatory powers as provided in the Treaty of Berlin, and the debt is not counted among the liabilities of the country. The Russian debt was to be paid off in semi-annual installments of 400,000 rubles. For two years they were regularly paid, and after that the matter remained in abeyance till March, 1890, when the Russian Government demanded and received the nine half-yearly installments then overdue. After an experimental attempt to collect a land tax, the Government returned in 1889 to the old system of tithes with great profit to the treasury, as an abundant harvest was contemporaneous with a rise in the price of wheat to figures never reached before, owing to the direct railroad communications with western Europe. The budget for 1890 shows a deficit of 8,544,150 lei, which will undoubtedly be made good out of arrears of taxes still outstanding, economies in expenditure, or receipts in excess of the estimates. The revenue is almost invariably underestimated. In the twelve budgets voted since Bulgaria has had a separate government there is a nominal total deficit, yet in every instance the receipts either balanced the expenditure or showed a surplus.

Commerce and Production.-Of the total area of the two Bulgarias about one fourth is cultivated, four fifths of the cultivated land being devoted to wheat. The amount of the trade with various foreign countries in 1888 is shown in the following table, which gives the values in lei or francs:

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The chief article of export is wheat. The export of grain from South Bulgaria alone in 1888 was valued at 11,650,000 francs, and that of attar of roses at 2,625,000 francs. Other exports are wool, cheese, skins, butter, and prunes. The largest imports are cotton, iron, wine and spirits, timber, sugar, salt, and petroleum.

There were 256 vessels, mainly Austrian. of 274.261 tons, entered at the port of Varna, and 553, of 101,657 tons, cleared in 1888.

Railroads. There were 432 miles of railroad in the entire principality in 1889, with connections with the Turkish railroads and with the general European system through Servia. The new line from Jamboli to Bourgas, 68 miles, was opened on May 26, 1890. Lines between Roman VOL. XXX.-6 A

and Tirnova, 175 kilometres, and between Tirnova and Kapidshan, 160 kilometres, are expected to be completed by May 1, 1891.

The Post-Office and Telegraphs.-There were 2,750 miles of telegraph lines in 1888, all belonging to the Government. The number of messages transmitted during that year was 620,692. The number of letters, papers, and other articles sent was 5,506,822.

The Army. The army is organized in 3 divisions of 2 brigades. The peace effective is about 32,000 officers and men, which can be trebled in case of war. The fleet consists of 3 war vessels, 10 small gunboats, and 2 torpedo boats. The infantry have been armed with the Mannlicher repeating rifle, and the artillery is provided with 280 guns of large caliber. The Servians, since the abdication of King Milan, have maintained a menacing attitude toward Bulgaria, and both countries have proceeded to fortify the frontier and have held troops in readiness. In September, 1889, the Bulgarian Prime Minister, expecting an outbreak of hostilities, obtained an emergency credit from the Sobranje of 5,000,000 lei, and half the Bulgarian army was called to arms. The Bulgarian fortifications on the plain of Slivnitza are in a more advanced stage than the Servian works at Pirot, Saitchar, Negotin, and in the Timok valley, which are being completed according to the recommendations of officers of the Russian general staff, who visited the ground in the beginning of April, 1890. To the forts already built the Bulgarians intend to add steel revolving turrets like those adopted for the defense of Bucharest. The Bulgarians could mobilize 75,000 troops at once, and are financially in a much better position than the Servians for carrying on war, but they have no officers of experience and ability, as all those who commanded in the late war have for political reasons been disgraced, banished, or shot.

Diplomatic Disputes.-As Austrian influence vanished from Servia and declined in Roumania, the Austrian Government began to support more openly the Bulgarians in their resistance to Russian domination, and Russian diplomacy took the attitude of opposition to the same claims and wishes of the Bulgarians that formerly it seconded. In the autumn of 1889 Count Kalnoky nearly induced the Porte to recognize the union of the two Bulgarias and the Government of Prince Ferdinand. In thwarting this design the Russian Government showed more consistency than the Vienna Foreign Office. A loan of 30,000,000 lei that was taken by the Austrian Länder Bank, with the countenance of the Austro-Hungarian authorities, was placed on the market in Vienna, Pesth, and Trieste in January, 1890, and was subscribed six times over, notwithstanding the warning by which previous loans had been defeated that when Russia became predominant in Bulgaria every act of Prince Ferdinand's Government would be repudiated. On this occasion, departing from the official reserve that it had maintained in Bulgarian affairs for three years, the Russian Government, in a note to its diplomatic representatives abroad, protested against the loan as an infraction of the Treaty of Berlin because it pledged the receipts of one of the Eastern Roumelian railroads. Egged on by Russia, the Porte

although she was a decent woman and they all liked her, they couldn't stand that baste of a husband of hers any longer,' and they really couldn't sell her any more bread. Boycott was isolated. . . . Three days after the decree of social excommunication was issued against Boycott I was dining with Rev. John O'Malley, and he asked me why I was not eating. I said I am bothered about a word.' What is it?' asked Father John. Well,' said I, when the people ostracize a land-grabber we call it social excommunication, but we ought to have an entirely different word to signify ostracism applied to a landlord or land-agent like Boycott. Ostracism won't do, the peasantry would not know the meaning of the word, and I can't think of anything. No?' said Father John; how would it do to call it "to boycott him." Then I was delighted, and I said: Tell your people to call it boycotting, so that when the reporters come down from London and Dublin they will hear the word; use it yourself. . . and I will ask the young orators of the Land League to give it that name: and I will use it myself in my correspondence."

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The boycott was one of the methods adopted by the patriots of the American Revolution as a defense against the tyranny of Great Britain. When King George and his ministers attempted to tax the colonies unjustly, agreements were drawn up by the Sons of Liberty and presented for signature to all the principal citizens of the colonies. By these agreements the signers bound themselves not to import, purchase, nor make use of certain articles produced or manufactured out of North America, such as teas, wines, and liquors." "Homespun parties were given where nothing of foreign importation appeared in the dresses or on the table. Even wedding festivities were conducted upon patriotic principles. It is related that at the marriage of Miss Dora Flint, at Windham, Conn., in December, 1767, the ladies were all arrayed in garments of domestic manufacture. The refreshments were all of domestic produce. In many of the principal towns of the colonies "committees of correspondence" were appointed who were to write to other towns and impress upon the people there the importance of this boycott, or, as it was then called, this “non-importation agreement." The Boston committee was most active. It was composed of Samuel Adams, John Hancock, James Bowdoin, John Adams, William Phillips, Joseph Warren, and Josiah Quincy. The circular which they sent out, known as the Boston circular, was sent throughout all the colonies. On Jan. 29, 1770, the inhabitants of Norwich, Conn., met in public mass meeting and resolved: "We give our hearty and unanimous approbation to the agree- ́ ment the merchants have entered into to stop the importation of British goods; we will frown upon all who endeavor to frustrate these good designs, and avoid all correspondence and dealings with those merchants who shall dare to violate these obligations." By May, 1770, three hundred and sixty individuals, mostly heads of families had put their names to the non-importation agreements. All over the country committees, variously called "committees of inspection" or "committees of observation," were

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appointed to make critical examination into the conduct of all buyers and sellers of goods, and to publish the names of those who failed to respect the boycott, "to the intent that such persons might be exposed to the odium and resentment of the people." Any person found to have violated the boycott had his name posted in handbills and in the newspapers, a proceeding," says a writer of that day. 64 which was usually followed by insults at least from the boys and populace." Ebenezer Punderson, the schoolmaster at Norwich, drank tea in spite of the boycott until the committee of inspection posted him and ordered "that no trade, commerce, dealings, or intercourse whatever be carried on with him," when he found it advisable to refrain from tea-drinking. The committee of observation of Cumberland County, N. J., reported that Silas Newcomb drank tea "and was determined to persist in that practice," and recommended that the people "break off all dealings with him, and in this manner publish the truth of the case, that he might be distinguished from the friends of American liberty." This was so effective that on May 11, 1775, Silas Newcomb formally, publicly, and in writing, recanted. In Boston, two or three brothers named McMasters sold the boycotted goods. On June 19, 1770, one of them was taken and carted in the heat of the day, with a bag of feathers and some tar in a barrel by his side, to King Street, where it was intended to expose him to public view besmeared with the one and coated with the other. But as he drew near the spot, his color forsook his lips, his eyes sank, and he was about to fall lifeless in the cart, when some gentlemen begged permission to take him into a house. Cordials were administered and McMasters was revived, and upon his solemn promise to go away and never return, he was excused from this newly invented punishment, and carted, sitting in his chair, to the Roxbury line, where he was dismissed.

A printer in New York city published a Tory newspaper, and was boycotted very generally by the people of New Jersey. One of these boycotts reads as follows: "We esteem him as an incendiary employed by a wicked ministry to disunite and divide us; and, therefore, we will not for ourselves have any connection or dealing with him, and do recommend the same conduct toward him to every person in this township; and we will discountenance any post-rider, stage driver, or carrier who shall bring his pamphlets or papers into this country." The inhabitants of Staten Island found it hard to relinquish their tea or their newspaper; and the committees of observation of the adjoining counties reported that the people of New Jersey "are bound to break off all trade, commerce, dealings, and intercourse whatever with the inhabitants of said island; and do resolve that all trade, commerce dealings, and intercourse whatever be suspended accordingly, which suspension is hereby notified and recommended to the inhabitants of their district, to be by them universally observed and adopted."

The attempt of the British to break the boycott by sending to America ships freighted with tea which was to be sold by specially appointed agents and at a reduced price was well known.

These boycotts of revolutionary times were remarkable because of their extension over so large a territory, the unanimity with which they were enforced by the people of the colonies, and the number of years which they lasted; nor, in estimating their importance, should the result which they were largely instrumental in accomplishing be forgotten.

The inhabitants of New York and Philadelphia Dom Pedro. The Crown Princess by the interest sent the ships back to London. The tea at that she showed in the abolition movement Charleston, S. C., was stored in cellars, where it aroused the animosity of the planters, and by could not be used and where it finally spoiled. the sudden decree of unconditional emancipaIn Boston men disguised as Indians boarded the tion, issued May 13, 1888, made numerous powships and threw their cargoes into the sea. On erful and unrelenting enemies. Her opposition Nov. 22, 1774, a brig landed a cargo of tea at to religious liberty, the rose of virtue sent to her Greenwich, N. J., but a party of the Sons of by the Pope, and the subservience to the clergy Liberty, headed by Ebenezer Elmer, afterward that she showed openly made the whole country a member of Congress, destroyed it by fire. The distrustful of her capacity to rule. In May, 1889, attempt to break down the boycott on tea was João Alfredo was replaced as Prime Minister by everywhere unsuccessful. Ouro Preto, who instituted an adventurous and extravagant economical policy, demoralized the civil service, fostered corruption, and roused the suspicion in the army, where the antagonism to the Count d'Eu and the princess regent was keenest, that he intended to supplant it with a new body, the National Guard, that could be depended on to fight for the dynasty and reactionary principles. A plot was organized among the officers to drive the unpopular ministry from power by a military revolt. The politicians of the Liberal party, the planters, and all the enemies of the Crown Princess were prepared to support the movement, and the juncture was adroitly utilized by the organizers of the plot to overturn the dynasty at the same time and to proclaim a republic, assuming themselves the chief offices in the Provisional Government. Arbitrary rule, corruption, the perversion of justice, systematic oppression, and neglect of the army and navy, and the intention avowed in the ministerial press to disband and abolish the two services and create in their stead an organization more pliant to official influence were the reasons for the revolt alleged in Marshal Deodoro's letter to Dom Pedro of Nov. 16, 1889. The revolutionary Government was composed in the beginning of the following heads of departments: Chief of the Provisional Government, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca; Minister of the Interior, Aristides da Silveira Lobo; Minister of Finance, Dr. Ruy Barbosa; Minister of War, Benjamin Constant; Minister of Marine, Rear-Admiral Eduardo Wandenkolk; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Quintano Bocayuva.

McMaster, in his "History of the People of the United States" (Vol. I, p. 404), gives an amusing and instructive account of a boycott declared by New Jersey and the people of Connecticut against New York in 1787. The embargoes laid by Congress upon shipping in ports of the United States in 1794 and 1806 were little less than boycotts as now understood. They were declared by one nation against another, yet they were enforced by the approbation of the people; and when declared by the national authorities to be at an end were still continued by private action in some parts of the country. There is still another American boycott, whose full history has never been completely written. Albion W. Tourgee, in his novels, has shown part of its operation; much concerning it is no doubt contained in diaries, in private correspondence, and in newspapers. This is the policy of social excommunication with which the South met the Northern emigrants or “carpet-baggers" after the civil war. This procedure is of peculiar value in tracing the history of the boycott, for James Redpath lived in the South in those days, saw the policy of social ostracism put into force, watched its operations, and noticed its failures - which were few-and its successes which were many. From his experiences of that time were derived his suggestions and recommendations of this policy to the Irish, which have been already mentioned. The boycott is, therefore, an American custom with an Irish name. The most remarkable instance in the recent history of the boycott was the suggestion put forth by several newspapers in the Southern States in July, 1890, to boycott all Northern men and manufacturers if a certain bill giving control over elections of Federal officers to United States officials was passed by Congress.

BRAZIL, a republic in South America, constituted under the name of the United States of Brazil on the overthrow of the Imperial Government and dethronement of Dom Pedro II, Nov. 15, 1889. The Emperor in 1887, when he went to Europe on account of his health, committed the Government to the Crown Princess, Dona Ysabel, whose subjection to the influence of Jesuits was generally resented. Her husband. Gaston d'Orleans, Count d'Eu, was still more disliked, and the Republicans were determined that the monarchy should end with the reign of

Area and Population.-The area of the different provinces or States and their population, as officially estimated in 1888, are given in the following table:

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The number of uncivilized Indians is estimated at 600,000. There were 723,419 slaves in 1887 according to an official report, valued at $485,225,212. Both Chambers passed an act in 1888 declaring slavery to be abolished and denying all claims for compensation, and on May 13 of that year the Crown-Princess signed the decree of emancipation. In the northern part of the country the Indian element preponderates; in Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Minas-Geraes there is a large negro population; and in the coast towns the main part of the population is of European descent. In eighteen years ending with 1888 a half-million of immigrants are said to have entered the country through the ports of Rio and Santos. In 1888 the number of settlers arriving in southern Brazil was 131,268, of whom 115,000 were Italians and the rest Portuguese, Germans, and Spaniards. The number of arrivals in 1887 in the same region was 55,986; in 1886, 25,135; in 1885, 30,135. In several States there are laws for compulsory school attendance. The number of children in the schools, public and private, was estimated in 1889 at 300,000. Of the total population 84 per cent. is reported to be unable to read or write. The Roman Catholic was the established religion of the empire, but the republican Government has abolished the connection between church and state, while continuing the stipends of the clergy that were formerly provided by the state and agreeing to support the chairs in the theological seminaries for at least one year longer. The individual States can subsidize the Roman Catholic or any other form of religion.

Commerce and Production. The total value of the imports in 1888 was 260,999,000 milreis, and of the exports 212.592,000 milreis. The values of the principal exports for the year ending June 30, 1887, were as follow, in milreis (the milreis 55 cents):

EXPORTS.

Coffee..

Sugar

Cotton

India-rubber.

Tobacco

Hides

Cacao

Paraguay tea Gold dust.. Diamonds. Hair..

Value.

nas-Geraes, and São Paulo. There were 90 cotton mills in operation in 1888. The number of cattle in Brazil is estimated at 17,000,000.

Navigation.-During 1888 the number of vessels engaged in ocean commerce entered at the ports of Brazil was 3,243, of 2,391,022 tons, of which 2,858, of 2,416,464 tons were foreign and 385, of 174,558 tons, Brazilian; the clearances numbered 2,390, comprising 2.267 foreign vessels of 2,346,682 tons, and 123 Brazilian vessels, of 701,103 tons. The coastwise movement was 1,545 foreign and 3,279 Brazilian vessels, of an aggregate capacity of 2,131,373 tons, entered, and 1,342 foreign and 3.290 Brazilian vessels, measuring 2,410,006 tons, cleared.

The mercantile navy in 1888 consisted of 89 steamers and 115 sailing vessels.

Railroads. In 1889 there were 5,582 miles of railroads in operation. 984 miles building, and 4,938 miles in contemplation. The state owned 1,444 miles of the completed roads and had guaranteed 1,748 miles belonging to companies, while 1,754 miles more had been guaranteed by the provincial governments. The capital expenditure on the state lines had been 161,286,720 milreis, and on all the railroads 488,148,327 milreis. There were 7,315,486 passengers and 1,820,106 tons of freight conveyed in 1887, the receipts amounting to 38,202,450 milreis and the expenses to 25.444.569 milreis. The receipts in 1888 on the state lines were 14.183,761 milreis, and the expenses 9,059,034 milreis.

The Post-Office and Telegraphs. — The length of telegraph lines in 1889 was 10,720 kilometres, or 6,700 miles, with 18,489 miles of wire. The number of dispatches was 567,935; the receipts, 1,523,200 milreis; expenses, 2,427,980 milreis.

The Army and Navy.-Obligatory military service was introduced by the law of 1875, which allows substitution or the purchase of exemption by the payment o. 1,000 milreis. The period of 187,000,000 service is six years in the regular army and three 16,020,000 years in the reserve. The reorganization of the 15,120,000 5,200,000 army was begun in February, 1890. Its strength 6.250,000 was fixed by a decree of the Provisional Govern5,360,000 ment at 24,877 men of all arms, six battalions of 1,680,000 infantry, two regiments of cavalry, and one of 3,600,000 1,200,000 artillery being added to the former establishment. The strength of the forces on the peace footing in 1889 was reported as 956 officers and 15,689 troops, comprising 774 engineers, 2,572 artillery, 2,410 cavalry, 9,531 infantry, and 402 in the transport service. There were besides 6,850 gendarmes.

860,000 210,000

The export of coffee from Rio was 413,756,000 pounds, valued at 106,274,358 milreis. Of the total exports of Brazil about one third go to the United States, the same proportion to Great Britain, and one tenth each to France and Germany. Of the imports Great Britain furnishes nearly one half, France one sixth, and Germany one eighth. The United States in 1888 imported 5 per cent. of the total, a smaller proportion than Portugal, and not much greater than Belgium supplied. The largest imports are cottons and wines and spirits, the next most important being preserved meat and fish, woolens, flour, coal, linen goods, and iron and steel manufactures.

Only a small part of the cultivable soil of Brazil has been made productive, and little has been done to utilize the valuable resources of the mines and forests. The vast deposits of iron ore can not be worked for want of fuel. Coffee is cultivated extensively in Esperito Santo, Mi

The most powerful vessels in the navy are two turret ships built in England, the "Riachuelo" and the "Aquidaban," protected by a belt of 11inch steel-faced armor, and carrying 4 20-ton breech-loading guns, besides machine guns and 70-pounders. Two other sea-going armor clads, two powerful vessels of light draught, plated with 10-inch armor and carrying 4 10-inch guns, each mounted in two turrets, and four other vessels for coast defense complete the iron-clad navy. The principal unprotected vessels are three first-class cruisers, including one that is not finished, and two of the second class. The torpedo fleet comprises five boats of the first class, six of the second class, and three of the third class. There are also a torpedo school ship, two training

corvettes, nine screw gunboats, eight side-wheel gunboats, and two transports.

Finances. The revenue for the eighteen months ending Dec. 31, 1887, was 201,425,000 milreis and the expenditure 229,663,800 milreis. In that year the fiscal year, which used to end on June 30, was made to correspond with the calendar year. Dr. Barbosa, who adopted the budget for the last year of the empire as the basis of that of 1890, estimates the annual revenue and expenditure at 150,000,000 milreis. The budget voted for 1889 fixes the expenditure at 153,000,000 milreis. The total national debt on Nov. 14, 1889, was 1,072,092 contos or thousands of milreis, of which 270,396 contos represent the funded foreign debt, 543,585 contos the domestie funded debt, and 258,111 contos the floating debt, inclusive of paper money, savings-bank funds, etc.

Decrees of the Provisional Government. -The revolution was accomplished without bloodshed or disturbance. Business was interrupted only for a day. The republican form of government was hailed with enthusiasm by a large part of the population, especially by the youth of the country. Students and clerks formed military companies and armed and drilled themselves for the defense of the republic. The new rulers kept a sharp watch on all telegraphic intercourse and news agencies, but otherwise betrayed no repressive tendencies. Their policy in its earliest manifestations was to reverse the most unpopular characteristics of the imperial régime, which were ecclesiastical influences and centralization of power. From all parts of the country came addresses expressing gratified recognition of the new order of things. The emblems of monarchy disappeared, and after a few days nothing was seen or heard to indicate that the people had ever lived under an empire. No hostile party showed itself, and the early acts of the Government were received without murmurs when not with approval. Only in Rio Grande do Sul and Bahia were there signs of disaffection, and even these provinces were brought into line, Gen. Visconde de Pelotas entering on his office as Governor of Rio Grande with a patriotic proclamation. The navy, the sentiments of which were doubtful, declared for the new Government. The ministers devoted themselves diligently and earnestly to reorganizing their departments. Officials who adhered to the monarchy were allowed to retire, and a discharged. The majority remained in

few were

their places. The empire was converted into a confederation of twenty States, consisting of the former provinces, the capital, with its 400,000 inhabitants, being declared a neutral district. A decree was issued on Nov. 19, 1889, declaring every Brazilian citizen who can read and write to be a voter, unless he has been deprived of his civil or political rights, the electoral process being left to the Minister of the Interior to determine. By the decree of Nov. 20 the provincial assemblies were dissolved, and for the interval that must elapse before the adoption of a republican system most extensive powers were confided to the governors, who were authorized to fix the civil, judicial, and ecclesiastical divisions, to select a place for the capital, to supervise the pub

lic and private schools, to expropriate private property for public purposes, to fix the expenditures of the state and to impose and collect taxes, to create offices and appoint civil functionaries, to plan and make contracts for public works, to organize and discipline the police, and to suspend judges appointed for life and dismiss other officials. The dangers of decentralization began immediately to impress themselves on the Provisional Government, for only three days later a decree was issued reserving to the federal authorities the appointment of governors, chiefs of police, State secretaries, judges, and postmasters. The assumption of powers never possessed by the Emperor caused the cry of "military dictatorship to be raised by old republicans as well as monarchists, and before the new Government was two weeks old it began to arrest obnoxious citizens, one of the first being Silveira Martins, who headed the opposition in the southernmost province. In Maranhão and in several smaller places the negroes rose in insurrection, fearing that they would be reduced to slavery again. The Emperor, whose debts were said to amount to 2,000 contos, refused to accept 5,000 contos that the Government offered to him in addition to the civil-list dotations that were continued during his life and that of the Empress. Perceiving in his rejection of money not voted by Parliament a denial of its authority and the assertion of a claim to the throne, the Government canceled the gifts, declared the civil list extinguished, pronounced a decree of banishment against the Emperor and all his family, and ordered the liquidation of his estate in Brazil within two years. On Dec. 7 the Municipal Chamber of Rio de Janeiro, a nest of political corruption and fraud, was dissolved and superseded by a committee. On Dec. 15 a naturalization law was promulgated declaring every foreigner residing in Brazil at the time of the revolution to be a Brazilian citizen possessing equal civil and political rights with native-born citizens, except eligibility to the office of chief executive of a State, provided he did not within six months from the date of the decree record his intention of preserving his allegiance to his native country; also every future foreign immigrant after a residence of two years in Brazil. This measure was very acceptable to Germans and other foreigners who desired a voice in the conduct of public affairs, and especially so on account of its novel form, relieving them of the necessity of renouncing their native country. The British Government instructed its consular

agents to give public notice to British subjects in Brazil that they would lose their civil rights in Great Britain if they submitted to tacit naturalization. The German Government took no steps because Germans can exercise the rights of citizenship in a foreign country without forfeiting any of their rights as born German subjects other than that of the protection of the diplomatic authorities, unless by an act of formal abjuration provided for in treaties. Between several governments an exchange of views took place in reference to a protest against the novel and sweeping method of naturalization introduced in Brazil. The law was modified in June by a new decree to the effect that foreigners neglecting to register their intention still remain

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