across vertically and horizontally from each pin to the one opposite. If the enlargement is to be six times, divide the sides and top and bottom of the strainer into 14-inch spaces, and drive pins into these division-marks, and run the thread across vertically and horizontally from each pin to the one opposite, and then draw in the enlargement. Of course, this method will require some knowledge of drawing.

The Pantograph. This instrument for enlarging or reducing a picture was invented about the year 1603. It consists of four metallic or wooden bars or rules, each one being perforated with a series of holes, by which they are connected by means of a thumb-screw. It is provided with a tracing and a marking point, and a screw or point which is forced into the drawing-board to hold the instrument in position. They are usually numbered from one to twenty on the four bars indicated. To use the instrument, select the number desired and secure the pantograph to the drawing-board at the left-hand side. Place a piece of manilla paper at the other end of the board and secure it with thumb-tacks. Place the photograph under the indicating point in the center and secure it to the board. The indicating point should always touch the photograph. If it does not, place a little weight on the instrument over the point. Now, guide the instrument by taking hold of the marking point, and watch the tracing point. In this manner go

over the entire photograph, putting in all the outlines and details necessary, after which transfer the outline from the manilla paper to the crayon strainer, with the transfer paper.

Backgrounds.-Begin the crayon portrait by putting in the background, using one of the four different methods given. No rule can be given for the lights and shadows, as every portrait will need a characteristic background adapted to the subject. There should always be a nice contrast of light and shade, having the light come against the dark side of the face and dark against the light side of the face, and generally a cast shadow, and this shadow must not be placed too near the head, as simplicity should be one of the principles of the background, and this can only be accomplished by breadth of light and shade. Hence in placing the lights and shadows in the background there should be a broad effect. When the strainer is laid on the table and rubbed with the cotton, first lay a piece of manilla paper on the table, and after rubbing the cotton in the crayon sauce rub it on the manilla paper to remove any foreign substance before rubbing it on the crayon paper, and always take a good handful of cotton to rub in the background with. The proper position to take in finishing a background is to place the strainer on the easel, with the center of the picture on a level with the eyes when standing, and then step back about six feet and decide where you intend to place the lights.

Line Effects.-The lines are drawn to cross one another so as to leave diamond shaped spaces. One of the important things in this style of finishing is the line of direction, by which is meant the lines or grains that represent the object to be drawn. We say that wood is cross-grained, meaning that the grains or fibers of the wood run crosswise. If we were to represent the grain of a straight board in crayon drawing, we would draw straight lines running lengthwise of the board, unless it should have some cross-grained places in it. If we should take the same board and bend it in the form of a circle, to represent the grain of the board in that position, we would draw curved lines to correspond with the grain in that position. The idea to be impressed is that when we represent an object in crayon and that object is flat, we draw straight lines to represent its surface, and when an object is round or partly so, we draw curved lines to represent its surface, conforming the lines to the surface of the object. Light and shade in nature have each their different qualities. Light expresses form, while shade obscures it; consequently, in the lighter places of an object we see its grain or texture, and this grain will gradually become obscure as it enters the shadows, until it is lost in the darkest. Hence, in the making of crayon portraits with lines, the grain effect will show more decided in the lights and half-shadows.

The Face.-For a line effect on a silver or platinum enlargement begin on the hair, using the Mines Noire's crayons No. 2, and put in the shadows and half-shadows. Do not work over the lights. Then with the Mines Noire's crayon No. 1 put in the face, strengthening all the shadows, and define the eyebrows, eyes, nose, and mouth, the shadows under and around the chin, and the ears. Then put in the line effect as shown in illustration No. 2. This shows the lines before they are rubbed. Observe that there are three sets of lines in the background, and two sets in the face and clothes. The line effect in the face is the beauty of this method; for if they are properly drawn it will represent and give the effect of the grain of the flesh. These lines are drawn in the form of elongated diamonds, yet when finished they must have the effect of broken diamonds. If you examine the back of your hand, you will see more clearly what is meant by the term broken diamonds. Begin on the forehead and put in one set of lines running straight across and curving down as the forehead rounds off toward the hair. Then one more set, which will produce the diamond form, and then continue all over the face, making these two sets of lines. These lines should indicate the grain of flesh by carefully keeping the line of direction. The lines are dark in the shadows, and lighter as they approach the lights, and on the highest lights of the forehead, nose, and chin, there should not be any lines. After the lines are drawn, with a piece of cotton rub the hair and face, rubbing in the line of direction. The crayon will now be about three shades darker in the lights than when finished, and not dark enough in the shadows. Proceed to finish, using the 0 crayon wherever it needs to be darker, and the nigrovine eraser where it should be made lighter, using the eraser on the same prin

by rubbing it on the emery paper. Take a piece three inches square and place it in the left hand between the index and second fingers, holding the fingers half an inch apart, and bend the paper in this opening so as to make a crease to rub the eraser in. It will be necessary to sharpen the eraser occasionally with the knife.

The Dress. To represent the effect of the lines in the clothes, every fold, sleeve, and lapel should have lines to distinguish them from the adjoining surface, and these lines will disappear in the wrinkles or shadows that define the fold, and in the next fold the lines will have a different direction. With the large gray paper stump and crayon sauce, put in the shadows, and then with the Mines Noire's crayon No. 2, draw the lines, and with a piece of cotton and crayon sauce rub over the clothes, and finish with the

touches, which do with the 0 crayon and nigrovine erasers; softening the lights and shadows into each other until the entire portrait is subdued and there are no decided lines of light and shade, carefully preserving the likeness.

The Stipple Effect.-On a silver or platinum enlargement put in a background after the second method, and then treat the whole surface of the paper with pumice stone, rubbing it with the fingers. Then put in the shadows with a tortilion stump and crayon sauce. Take out the lights with the nigrovine eraser, and finish with the 0 crayon. Instead of a diamond effect, as

with the lines, a stipple effect must be produced -that is, the effect of black and white spots, the paper producing the white spots and the crayon the black ones. This is done by working over the picture with short curved lines in different directions, like the illustration, and then rubbing them with the end of the fingers (do not use the cotton). Finish by cutting up the light spots with the crayon pencil, and the dark spots with the erasers, producing an even effect of small black and white spots over the picture.

Bromide Paper.-The Steinbach crayon paper, used for making free-hand crayon drawings, has received a coat of sizing. This surface is not hard enough to necessitate any treatment before applying the crayon, unless we desire to break up the surface with the pumice stone. Platinum and silver enlargements undergo in their photographic manipulations a change whereby the paper is made soft and spongy; therefore they are easier to work on than the crayon or bromide paper, as they will take the crayon from the cotton and stump more readily than the former, for the crayon enters into the pulp of the paper on account of this softness.

In the bromide enlargement, while the paper has to undergo all the manipulations of development and fixing and washing that the silver or platinum enlargement does, yet the gelatin has not been removed, and when dry remains as a strong sizing to the surface of the paper. The print and paper are different from the silver or platinum print or crayon paper, but there is not as much difference in the print as there is in the surface of the paper. There should be this difference. The silver or platinum enlargement should only be printed strong enough to give the form and the larger details in the negative. The bromide enlargement should be as perfect a photograph in its strength of light and shade

and detail as it is possible to make from the negative. From the fact that, on account of the hardness of the surface, not as much crayon can be put on the bromide paper as on the other kinds of paper, and therefore they can not be strengthened in the same degree in the shadows as the other without spoiling the transparent effect in the shadows, the best bromide crayons are those whereby the least amount of crayon is used to produce the desired effect.

Finishing Bromide Enlargements.-Take the mounted enlargement and look at it sidewise, and see if there is any starch on the surface of the paper. If there is, remove it with a sponge and clean water, and then dry it. Then lay the enlargement on the table, take a handful of cotton and rub it in the crayon sauce, then on the manilla paper, and then rub over the entire surface of the paper with the cotton in a circular motion. Then sprinkle pumice stone over the enlargement, and rub it with the flat ends of the fingers. This treatment cuts through the gelatin surface, and produces an even-grained surface. Then rest the strainer on the edge and jar off the pumice stone. Lay the strainer down and rub it with a clean piece of cotton. Rub the flat ends of the fingers in the crayon sauce and then on the manilla paper, and then go over the entire surface of the enlargement with the fingers thus charged with the crayon, and it will produce a beautiful stipple effect. If the shadows are not dark enough, use a little more crayon, and put the cast shadow in the background. Before proceeding further it is well to note that in the bromide paper there is one more surface than in the other paper-that is, the gelatin surface-and that the photographic image is on this gelatin surface and not on the paper, and under this image we have the pure white paper. If it should be necessary to make a shadow lighter, it can be done by removing this surface with an ink-eraser knife; and you will also observe that on account of the hardness of this gelatin surface the crayon will come off very easily, and on this account will need a different method in finishing, and hence you use the fingers to apply the crayon sauce.

Place the enlargement on the easel, and put in the cloud effects with the large eraser. Then lay it on the table, and clean off the edges about 4 inches all around with the cotton and pumice stone. Then return it to the easel. and with the large eraser clean off the lights in the face, hair, and dress, and then with a clean piece of cotton blend the lights and shadows together. Then with the stump and crayon sauce and fingers strengthen the shadows and finish with the nigrovine eraser and 0 conte crayon, producing an even stipple effect over the entire picture, and give the proper effect of light and shade. You will have a good guide for the stipple effect in the background, as you will notice that this stipple effect is perfect there in some places, especially in the lighter ones. The finishing with the 0 crayon is the nicest part of this method. and must be done by keeping in mind the fact that you are putting in the stipple effect, and that alone. That is, the crayon is supposed to be right in light and shade, and it should not be necessary at this stage of finishing to strengthen the picture in the shadows with the 0

crayon. You are to mend or patch the crayon at this stage, cut it up in the stipple effect-that is, there will be patches of light and dark places that must be joined together, and there will be small white and black places that will need to be made the same as the white and black spots that produce the stipple effect. Finish the clothes by using the large stump in the darker places and rubbing with the fingers, and with the eraser and cotton in the lights. See "Crayon Portraits, a Complete Treatise for making Crayon Portraits on Crayon Paper, Platinum Enlargement, Silver Enlargement, and Bromide Enlargement," by Jerome A. Barhydt.

PORTUGAL, a constitutional monarchy in southwestern Europe. The reigning King, Carlos I, born Sept. 28. 1863, succeeded to the throne Oct. 19, 1889. The heir-apparent, Luis Philip, Duke of Braganza, born March 21, 1887, is the elder of two sons of the King and his wife, Marie Amélie, a daughter of the Comte de Paris. He was formally recognized by the Cortes as successor to the crown on June 14, 1890.

In consequence of the British ultimatum (see EAST AFRICA) the ministry of the Progressist party that had been in office since Feb. 20, 1886, resigned, and a new one was formed on Jan. 14, 1890, of which the following were the members: President of the Council and Minister of the Interior, Serpa Pimentel; Minister of Justice, Lopo Vaz; Minister of Public Works, Frederigo Aouca; Minister of Finance, Franco Castello Branco; Minister of Marine and the Colonies, Arroyo; Minister of War, Gen. Vasco Guedes; Minister of Foreign Affairs, Hintze Ribeiro.

Area and Population. The area of the kingdom is 34,038 square miles, and the population is about 5,180,000. Lisbon, the capital, has 242,297 inhabitants. The number of marriages in 1886 was 33,727: of births, 155,815; of deaths, 99,389. The number of emigrants was 13,998, as against 15,004 in 1885, 17,518 in 1884, and 19,251 in 1883.

Finances. The budget for 1890-'91 makes the total receipts 40,972.694 milreis, and the expenditures 45,467,797 milreis. The new consolidated debt on Dec. 31, 1889, amounted to 546,478.885 milreis, and the unfunded debt to 2,377,399 milreis. The amount of interest paid in 1889 was 17,730,807 milreis.

The Army and Navy.-Obligatory service was introduced by the law of Sept. 12, 1887, the period being three years with the colors or in the navy, five years in the first reserve, and four in the second. The peace effective of the army on Aug. 31, 1889, was 2,302 officers and 32.450 men, with 3,580 horses and 781 mules. When the new law comes into full operation there will be of drilled and instructed troops about 100,000 in active service and in the first reserve and 50,000 in the second reserve.

The navy in 1890 had 42 effective steamers with 141 guns and 12 sailing vessels with 39 guns.

Commerce. The special imports of merchandise in 1889 were valued at 41,860,231 milreis; of precious metals, 10.492.855 milreis; the exports of merchandise, 23,443,510 milreis; of precious metals, 1,987,655 milreis. In 1888 30 per cent. of the imports came from Great Britain, 12 per cent. from France, 11 per cent. from GerVOL. XXX.-47 A

many, and over 10 per cent. from the United States, while of the exports 32 per cent. went to Great Britain, 21 per cent. to France, and 9 per cent. to Brazil. The chief exports in 1889 were wine of the value of 12,408,000 milreis; cork, 2,912,000 milreis; copper, 1,000,000 milreis; fish, 945,000 milreis; animals, 665,000 milreis; figs, 366,000 milreis; and salt, 285,000 milreis. In consequence of the popular indignation against England, the imports from that country were replaced in 1890 by the produce of other countries whereever it was possible. The figures for 1889 show an increase in the export of port wine, cork, minerals, and salt, and a decrease in Madeira and the ordinary red wine that was formerly in demand to supply the deficiency of the French vintages. The value of the wines exported to Great Britain in 1889 was 4,134,000 milreis; to France, 3,126,000 milreis; to Brazil, 3,109,000 milreis; to Germany, 854.000 milreis: to Portuguese colonies, 294,000 milreis.

The number of steam vessels entered at the ports of the kingdom in 1889 was 4,886, of 5,298,000 tons, the number of sailing vessels was 7,155, of 697,000 tons. The merchant marine in 1890 numbered 57 steamers, of 86,439 metric tons, and 390 sail vessels, of 97,352 tons.

Communications.-The post-office in 1888 carried in the internal service 18,525,000 letters, 3,294,000 postal cards, 16,144,000 printed inclosures, and 269,000 money letters, and in the international service, 4,315,000 letters, 126,000 postal cards, 3,135,000 printed inclosures, and 33,000 money letters.

There were 2,060 kilometres of completed railroads on Jan. 1, 1890, and 411 kilometres in process of construction.

Colonial Possessions.-The Portuguese colonies in Asia, comprising Goa, Damao, and Diu in India, Timor and other islands in the Indian archipelago, and Macao in the Sea of China, have a total area of 7,923 square miles and 849,600 inhabitants. The budget for Portuguese India shows for 1890-'91 a surplus of 166.247 milreis, the receipts being reckoned at 925,817, and the expenses at 759,570 milreis. For Macao and Timor the estimated receipts are 488,845 and expenses 423,496 milreis, leaving a surplus of 65.349 milreis. The treaty by which China definitely ceded Macao to Portugal and formally relinquished all claims of sovereignty was ratified at Tientsin on March 28, 1890. Revolutionary disturbances broke out at Goa during the elec tions of 1890.

The area of the Portuguese possessions in Africa, including the islands of Madeira, San Thome, and Principe, and the Cape Verd Islands was 612,217 square miles. In 1890 the regions conceded to be Portuguese by Great Britain in the Anglo-Portuguese Convention that the Cortes refused to ratify was 774,993, the additions consisting of 160,000 square miles of Hinterland between Angola and the upper reaches of the Zambesi and the little district of Cabinda. As soon as the treaty was signed the British proceeded to avail themselves of the clause throwing open the navigation of the Zambesi. The "Humber" and the "Buccanneer," carrying the parts of two light sternwheel gunboats especially built for the Zambesi, drawing only eighteen inches of water, with men and stores for the boats when put to