sciences, the very essence of empiricism and quackery. It is probable, however, that a few years' application of the school system lately adopted, will entirely change the complexion of the inhabitants, and bring about the subversion of the present state of superstition, mummery and rottenness, that now infests the country, and reveal to the inhabitants those principles that can alone give to their land the essential benefits of liberty-that liberty, they, in their present state, are incapable of enjoying.

The weights, measures and coinage of the country, are similar, in capacity and value, to those of Spain, but bear the national impress: the silver of Bolivia, however, is of a finer character than that of Spain, and is more valuable as bullion.

The form of government is that of an elective integral republic. The constitution on which it is based, was propounded by Bolivar, in 1825, but some of the provisions of that constitution have been abandoned, and others substituted. The powers are decreed to a president, (formerly for life,) a legislature, consisting of a senate and house of deputies, and a judiciary, independent of the other divisions of the government. The whole male adult population are eligible to office, but elections are carried on through electoral colleges. Nominal liberty is also allowed to all.

The history of this country is little known: the short accounts we have are contradictory, and made to suit the interests of the writer, or his party. Bolivia, under Spain, was known as Upper Peru, and was successively attached to Peru Proper and the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres. It was the first to feel the effects of the revolution, and last to rid itself of Spanish oppres sion. Previous to the battle of Ayacucho, it was the strong-hold of General Lascerna, the Spanish Viceroy of Peru, who had fled hither on the breaking out of the revolution in Lima. The consequence of that battle, in which the Spaniards were entirely defeated, was its independence. The present name of the republic was given in 1825, in honor of the South American liberator, Simon Bolivar, and to him was entrusted its destinies. Generals Sucre, Velasco, Blanco, Santa Cruz, &c., have since successively filled the executive chair, but the state of the country has never been settled, and it is still the scene of constantly recurring revolutions: its condition is such, indeed, that he who holds power to-day has no guarantee that the morrow will not consign him to a dishonorable death, or more ignominiously to the dungeon and popular outrage. President Balivian, who has governed for some years, was driven out in 1849, and has been temporarily succeeded by Belxu, one of the generals who had revolted against his tyranny.

THE REPUBLIC OF PERU.

THIS republic is situated on the western side of the continent of South America, and formed a part of the ancient Spanish vice-royalty of the same name. It lies between the parallels of 30 and 220 south latitude, and 690 and 81° 20' west longitude. On the north it is bounded by the Republic of Equador, on the south and south-east by Bolivia, and on the east by Brazil, having the Pacific Ocean lying to the west. Its extreme length, from S. S. E. to N. N. W. is about 1,500 miles; its breadth varies from 40 to 600 miles. The estimated area of Peru is 500,000 square miles.

The

The whole of Peru is traversed by the Cordilleras of the Andes, the eastern range of which approaches within from 30 to 100 miles of the Pacific Ocean. The country is naturally divided into three distinct regions: the slope between the Andes and the coast; the mountain regions of the Andes themselves, and that east of the Cordilleras, forming part of the great basin of the Amazon. All these divisions are widely different in character. The coast region, between the Tumbez River and the Leche, is mostly a desert, and wherever, in fact, it is not traversed by streams or is not susceptible of irrigation, it consists principally of arid, sandy wastes, and is in the last degree barren. Immediately on the coast lies all the principal settlements made by the Spaniards. The area of the mountain district has been estimated to cover about 200,000 square miles of territory. Andes in Peru, as well as in Bolivia, consists of two main chains or Cordilleras, connected in various parts by cross ranges, and enclosing several extensive and lofty vallies. Round Cuzco is a vast knot of mountains, occupying about three times the extent of Switzerland; and round Pasco, in latitude 13° south, is another knot surrounding the plain of Bombon, 13,500 feet above the ocean level, and in which are the rich and valuable silver mines of the Cerro Pasco. The Peruvian Andes are not, in general, so elevated as the Bolivian, though many of their peaks rise above the limits of perpetual snow. The loftiest summits are towards the south where the Nevada de Chuquibamba (latitude 5o) reaches to 21,000 feet in height; and several others, surrounding the valley of Desaguadero, which belongs only partly to Peru, may at least approach this elevation. In Bolivia the east, but in Peru the west Cordillera is the highest at the mountain knot of Pasco, the Andes separating into three collateral chains, which, proceeding north, separate the basins of the Maranon, Huallaga, and Ucayale. last range of the Andes to the east in Peru, extends between the 6th and 15th parallels, to a distance varying from 2 to 400 miles from the Pacific, and separates the basin of the Ucayale from those of the Yavari, Beni, and other affluents of the Amazon. Probably no part of the range rises above 10,000 feet.

The

The space enclosed between the gigantic ridges of the east and west Cordillera, called the Sierra, is partly occupied by mountains and naked rocks, partly by table lands yielding short, fine grass, and extensive hilly pasture ground, much resembling the general contour of the Highlands of Scotland, but destitute of all covering, and partly by extensive and fertile vallies, that once supported a large population. The third region or country east of the Cordilleras, is very little known; it is covered with interminable forests, and can scarcely be said to belong to Peru, being occupied only by a few missionaries and tribes of independent Indians.

The largest rivers in the world have their source from the Peruvian Andes. The Tunguragua, generally regarded as the proper source of the Amazon, and its vast confluents, Huallaga and Ucayale, (the latter formed by the junction of the Apurimac and Paro) have their sources on the east side of the western chain of the Cordilleras, between 10° 30′ and 16° south latitude, and pursue, though with many windings, a northerly course, until they pass the boundaries of the country. These great rivers are mostly navigable, and, with the assistance of steam navigation, will, no doubt, at an early period, carry the riches of this remote region across the continent to the ports of the Atlantic. There are few lakes in Peru; if we except that of Titicaca. This lake, the largest and most elevated in South America, is partly within Bolivia, being enclosed by the Cordilleras

still exists in Venezuela; and all the important branches of useful knowledge professed at the universities, are so taught as to be really worse than useless, and, instead of expanding and enlightening the mind, serve rather to imbue it with the grossest prejudices. Primary schools are established in every parish; and Lancasterian schools exist in the principal cities. The literary talent of the country is chiefly confined to the newspapers and on these the most lenient judgment must pronounce a most unqualified condemnation.

The fine arts are equally destitute of excellence; architecture has made but little progress, and all architectural beauty, which is found in Caracas, and the other principal cities, belongs to another race, and the old regimé. The republic cannot even boast of an ordinary portrait-painter. But, it is said, that the females of Caracas are excellent musicians, and can sing harmoniously and well. The whole scope, however, of the higher phases of the fine arts are decidedly in a backward state. The besetting sin of the Venezuelians is indolence, which retards all their social progress; they are courteous, hospitable, and when intimately known, friendly and cordial: temperate in their habits and grave in their deportment, but suspicious, reserved, slow, and imbued with an excess of national pride. The manners, dress, habits and amusements of those of European descent, much resemble those of their Spanish ancestors.

The coast of Venezuela was originally discovered by Columbus, in 1498, during his third voyage. Several voyages were afterwards made by adventurers, and some unavailing attempts having been made to colonize, the Spanish government came to the determination of settling the country under its own direction. These expeditions being managed by priests, were generally ill-conducted, and it was found necessary to subdue the na tives by force. When this was partially effected, and the Spanish settlers were placed in some security, the proprietorship was sold to the Weltzers, a German Mercantile Company. Under their management, the Spaniards and natives suffered most grievous tyranny. They were dispossessed in 1750, and a supreme chief, with the title of Captain-General, was appointed. From this period until 1806, Caracas remained in the peaceful possession of Spain, and progressed in wealth and internal prosperity. In this year, a gallant, but unfortunate attempt, was made to secure the independence of the country. Gen. Miranda, a native of Caracas, formed, for this pur pose, an expedition, partly from St. Domingo and partly from New-York A landing was effected on the coast, but the forces proved wholly inade quate for the design; and many were taken prisoners, and were executed The defeat was decisive, and for the time effectually suppressed the spirit of revolt. The entrance of the French into Spain, however, and the con sequent derangement of Spanish affairs, gave the Venezuelans an opportu nity to relax their bonds, and establish a free government. For this pur pose a Junta Suprema, or Congress, was convened at Caracas, in which deputies from all the provinces, except Maracaybo, were present.

The Junta at first published their acts in the name of Ferdinand VII. but the captain-general and the members of the audiencia were deposed and imprisoned, and the new government received the title of the Confede ration of Venezuela. The most violent and impolitic measures were no adopted by the Regency and Cortes of Spain; but the Congress finding the voice of the people decidedly in favor of independence, formally pro claimed the country a free and independent Republic, on the 5th of July

1811. A liberal constitution was formed, and affairs wore an aspect favorable to the cause of liberty until the fatal earthquake of 1812, which, operating on the superstitions of the people, led to a great change in public opinion.

Monteverde, a royalist general, taking advantage of the existing state of things, marched against Caracas, and, after defeating General Miranda, compelled the whole province to submit; in 1813, however, Venezuela was again emancipated by Bolivar, who was sent with an army from New Grenada; but, in 1814, he, in his turn, was defeated by Boves, and compelled to evacuate. In 1816, he again returned with a respectable body of troops, and was again defeated; but undismayed by reverses, he again landed in December, convened a general congress, and defeated the royalists in March, 1817, with great loss. Bolivar was now invested with dictatorial powers, the state of the country requiring unity and energy, and the contest was carried on with much spirit, and with various results. On the 17th Dec., 1819, a union of the republic with New Grenada was formed; this confederation received the title of the Republic of Colombia, and a suitable constitution was formed for the joint government. In the meantime, Bolivar was active in the field. On the 24th June, 1821, the battle of Carabobo was fought, in which the royal army was totally defeated, with the loss of their artillery, baggage, and upwards of 6,000 men; and soon after the Spaniards evacuated the country.

In the year 1829, Venezuela was separated from the Republic of Colombia, and again became an independent republic, under the presidency of Gen. Paez. In 1830, after the resignation of Bolivar, it again joined the Colombian Republic, but this union was of short duration. In November a new separation took place, and Colombia was finally divided into the three republics, Venezuela, New Grenada, and Equador.

Since this period the country has enjoyed external peace; but, within her own borders, the cauldron of political strife has been in constant ferment; and civil wars have reduced the energies of the republic, and operated heavily on its progress and prosperity.

On the 30th March, 1847, a treaty was concluded at Madrid, by which Spain renounced all sovereignty over Venezuela, and acknowledged her to be a free and independent nation.

The following persons have been successively presidents of the Republic since its separation in 1830:-Gen. José Antonio Paez; Dr. Vargas; Gen. Soublette; and José Tadeo Monagas, the present president, whose term of service will end in 1850, if not deposed before that period.

*

The civil war now waging, was commenced immediately after the massacre of several members of congress, on the 24th January, 1848, which act is said to have been perpetrated at the instigation of the president. Several battles have been fought between the popular general, Paez, and the myrmidons of Monagas, but, as yet, without result. From all appearances, the war seems to be one of castes, and will probably be of long continuance; it has been such pitiable outbreaks as this, that have retarded the developement of this prolific country, and such will ultimately prove its ruin if not abated.

It was in the regions of the vast plains watered by the Orinoco, that report located the fabulous "El Dorado," the golden kingdom of Manoa, which was the grand ultimatum of the Spaniards' hopes, and occasioned the fitting out of a great many expeditions in the 16th century. The Indians of Peru were continually pointing their reckless invaders to the * This war terminated with the surrender of Paez in August, 1849.

south of the table-land of Cuzco. Its outline is very irregular, being divided by a number of headlands into a main body of an oblong form, and three subsidiary portions; its area is 4,000 square miles, and its height above the ocean 12,795 feet. It is said to be in many places 500 feet deep. It contains many small mountainous islands, and from the largest, at its southern extremity, the lake has received its name, which signifies "the leaden mountain." This island is three leagues in length, and one in breadth, and about a mile from shore. It is mostly uncultivated, but very fertile. On this island tradition places the first appearance of Manco Capac; and it is yet held in great veneration by the Peruvian Indians. The other lakes of Peru are comparatively small, but are the sources from whence all the great rivers, flowing eastward, have their sources.

The rivers of the coast are of no account; they are small, shallow, and incapable of navigation. The coasts are lofty and rugged throughout. In the northern provinces, some miles of a loose, sandy desert intervene between the high lands and the ocean, but, in general, the cliffs approach close to the shore, which has not, perhaps, in an extent of 1,600 miles a dozen secure harbors. The best of these are Callao, Payta, Sechura, Salina, Pisco, Islay, and a few others; Truxillo and Lambayeque have only open road-steads. The water being almost of uniform depth, vessels are obliged to approach within a quarter of a mile of the shore before they can anchor, and the prodigious swell, which rolls unbroken from the Pacific, occasions a heavy and dangerous surf. "The operation of landing," is, except in a few places, at once difficult and hazardous; it is effected by means of balsas or platforms, raised on inflated skins, and differing in different parts of the coast. The balsa used by Capt. Hall, (see Hall's South America,) was made of two entire seal skins inflated, placed side by side, and connected by cross-pieces of wood and strong lashings of thongs; over all a platform of cane-mats forms a sort of deck, about four feet in width and six or eight feet in length. At one end, the person who is managing the balsa kneels down, and by means of a double-bladed paddle, which he holds by the middle, and strikes alternately on each side, moves it swiftly along; the passengers or goods being placed on the platform behind him. All the goods which go into the interior, at this part of the coast, are landed in this manner. The great bars of silver, and the bags of dollars also, which are shipped in return for the merchandize landed, pass through the surf, on these slender, though secure conveyances.

The mineral resources of Peru, like those of Mexico, are inexhaustible: the whole country is one vast mound of mineral wealth; the mountains, rivers and streams are glittering with gold, silver and precious stones. The very name of the country is associated in the mind with ideas of gold and silver. But though the most exaggerated notions of the value and importance of the Peruvian mines were long, and perhaps are yet, prevalent, they have no doubt furnished vast supplies of the precious metals. The greater number of mines at present being worked, are situated in the Cerro de Pisco, in the department of Junin. Their produce has materially declined since the revolutionary struggle. Humboldt, at the commencement of the present century, estimated the annual value of the gold and silver of Peru at 6,240,000 dollars, but at present, owing to the anarchy and insecu rity that has prevailed, their value is probably not more than half that amount: but it is impossible to ascertain the actual amount collected, as a great quantity is smuggled out of the country to avoid the export duty. M'Culloch is disposed to estimate the average annual value of the gold and silver mines