an increase in white opposition because of the nature of the education given and its results. The most promising sign for the future was the development of the Hampton-Tuskegee plan during this period of discouragement. The problems with which Reconstruction began are, on the whole, unsolved, except in so far as Armstrong and Washington have solved them.

REFERENCES

EDUCATION BEFORE THE WAR: Dyer, Democracy in the South before the War; Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama, p. 212; Garner, Reconstruction in Mississippi, p. 354; Report of Commissioner of Education, 1899-1900, vol. i, ch. 6 and 7.

THE CHURCHES AND THE AID SOCIETIES: Elwang, Negroes of Columbia, Missouri, ch. 6; Fleming, p. 649; Garner, p. 355; Page, The Negro, p. 38; Phelps, Louisiana, p. 341; Thomas, The American Negro, pp. 240, 261. FREEDMEN'S BUREAU SYSTEM: Elwang, ch. 6; Fleming, p. 456; Garner, pp. 354, 355; Page, p. 38; Pierce, Freedmen's Bureau, ch. 5; Reed, The Brothers' War, ch. 16.

SCHOOL SYSTEMS OF RECONSTRUCTION:

Avary, Dixie after the War, ch. 27;

Elwang, ch. 6; Fleming, ch. 19; Garner, pp. 356-371; Herbert, Solid South, p. 328; Murphy, The Present South, ch. 2, 3; Page, see index; Reed, ch. 16; Reynolds, Reconstruction in South Carolina, pp. 123, 231. NEGRO EDUCATION: Atlanta University Publications, nos. 5 and 6; Du Bois, Souls of Black Folk; Elwang, ch. 6; Fleming, ch. 16 and pp. 456, 624; Garner, ch. 10; Gunby, Negro Education; Montgomery Conference, pp. 105, 134; Murphy, ch. 2, 3, 7; Page, see index; Reed, ch. 16; Thomas, ch. 9. HAMPTON AND TUSKEGEE: Kelsey, Negro Farmer, ch. 6; Montgomery Conference, Race Problems, pp. 83, 157; Talbot, Samuel C. Armstrong; Thomas, p. 267; Washington, Up from Slavery.

1. NORTHERN VIEWS OF THE EDUCATIONAL PROBLEMS OF RECONSTRUCTION

The

Education as an Element in Reconstruction Proceedings National Teachers' Association, 1865 and 1870. session of the National Teachers' Association in 1865 was devoted principally to discussing the question of education in the South. The speeches of the leaders are useful to illustrate the feelings, opinions, and knowledge of conditions upon which the educational part of the Reconstruction was largely based. [1865, 1870]

[S. S. Greene, President N. T. A., 1865] How was it in the
states where the institution of slavery prevailed? There was
no Common School System.
The children of a large por-
tion of the population were, by law, prohibited the advantages.
of an education; and a large portion of the free population were
virtually shut out from the means of early culture. These
two sections of the country, from the necessities of the case,
must be parted from each other, by different tastes, different
views of life, different aspirations, different judgments as to
right and duty as to the true functions of government. Sec-
tional and selfish jealousies are engendered. Designing men
inflame and cherish them. Education is the chief unifying
process on which we can rely for a permanent peace. Let our
statesmen duly consider this point in the work of reconstruc-
tion. . . In the treatment of prisoners, in the treatment of
those who have expressed opinions adverse to the prevailing
power, in the free discussion of unwelcome topics, it is grati-
fying to see what control education has exerted over the gov-
ernment and the masses of the loyal States. Would that, in
these respects, faithful history were not compelled to exhibit its
darkest page in regard to the States lately in rebellion.

In the very act of emancipation there is the sacred promise to educate. Slavery has kept the word education out of our National Constitution. . . Slavery is dead, and we can now introduce into our Constitution the angelic agency of education. We can now, for the first time, meet the demands of humanity, civilization, and freedom. We can not only

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teach the negroes, but we can emancipate the "poor whites" whom ignorance has kept so long in bondage. The old slave States are to be new missionary ground for the national schoolmaster, where, without regard to rank, age or color, he will teach all his pupils that learning and development are the first natural rights of man.

[Francis Wayland, 1865] The rebellion has tested the value of education. It has been a war of education and patriotism against ignorance and barbarism. . .

[President Hill of Harvard, 1865] The present hour opens peculiarly inviting fields of labor for those engaged in teaching,. and in the new work of spreading knowledge and intellectual culture over the regions that sat in darkness.

[J. P. Wickersham, 1865] What can education do for the slaveholders? The great majority of those who formerly held slaves are now just what they were before and during the war; and I am extremely doubtful whether there are any means by which they can be made, as a class, good and loyal citizens. . Events seem to show that nearly all are at heart still opposed to free governments, and to the crowning excellencies of free governments-free men, free thought, free speech and free schools. If pardoned, and permitted to retain their property and the privileges of citizens, they will soon attempt to regain their lost power in the State and National Governments, and to revive the aristocratic forms of Southern society. If pardoned, but not permitted to retain their property, or the privileges of citizens, a few may quietly submit to what they will consider their hard condition; some will leave the country the more the better-while others will remain, to trouble every community in which they live with their ill-concealed treason. They have been already sadly miseducated, and they would scornfully reject all proffers of education at our hands. They are the thorns around which, and in spite of which, the wounds of the body politic must heal. We must treat them as Western farmers do the stumps in their clearings; work around them, and let them rot out. . .

What can education do for the non-slaveholding whites of