occupied the whole of the following autumn and early winter in driving one part of the American army up the Hudson, and the other part across the Delaware. Then, instead of following up Washington's diminishing and poorly-equipped forces, he placed his fine army in winter-quarters extending from the Hudson to the Delaware, a distance in a straight line of some seventy-five miles! This was Washington's opportunity, and well he improved it.

Crossing the Delaware on Christmas night, 1776, with about

of Trenton.

twenty-four hundred men, he marched through The surprise storm and cold to Trenton. At daybreak he surprised the Hessian detachment stationed there, capturing nearly one thousand men one hundred and fifty more making good their escape. This sudden and decisive return of the offensive saved the Revolution, which, at that moment, seemed about to perish from inanition. Cornwallis, with a strong force, was immediately sent against the Americans. Outwitting him, Washington fought a sharp action at Princeton and gained the high lands of New Jersey. His presence there compelled Howe to abandon his distant outposts and to keep his army within supporting distance from New York.

Plan of the Campaign of 1777.

The British plan of campaign for 1777 was quite elaborate -including two distinct movements, one for the capture of Philadelphia, and the other for the occupation of the line of Lake Champlain and the Hudson River, thus separating New England from the other colonies. The former operation was successfully carried out. Howe, commanding in person, carried a strong army on shipboard to the Chesapeake, and thus approached Philadelphia in the rear of its defences. Washington opposed him at the crossing of Brandywine Creek, which empties into Delaware Bay some distance below Philadelphia; but his position was turned and he was obliged to abandon the city to the British. Later, when a good opportunity offered itself, he surprised a

III.]

Campaign of 1777.

91

large detachment of the British army at Germantown; but here again, owing mainly to misfortune, he was unsuccessful. Retiring up the Schuylkill River to Valley Forge, a strong position among the hills, the American army passed a terrible winter. But there they were drilled by Steuben and his subordinates until the Continental Line became an admirable force.

Burgoyne's

Campaign.

The execution of the other portion of the campaign was intrusted to Burgoyne. It had been intended that Howe should co-operate with him from New York. The story is related, however, that the orders to that effect reached New York too late, owing to Lord George Germaine having placed them in a pigeon-hole that he might attend a garden-party. At all events, Howe went south, leaving Clinton at New York with too weak a force to succour Burgoyne. At the other end of the line Sir Guy Carleton, the British commander in Canada, felt aggrieved at not having command of this expedition, and placed many obstacles in Burgoyne's way. That general, after crossing the Canadian boundary, enjoyed a brief period of success. Driving the Americans under St Clair before him, he reached the portage between Lakes Champlain and George and the Hudson River without serious opposition. From that point the expedition was one series of misfortunes. Burgoyne occupied fifty days in marching seventy miles through the wilderness, the delay giving the New Englanders time to drop their ploughs, seize their muskets, and march to the Hudson. The British reached the river with diminished supplies. To replenish them in part and, also, to secure mounts for his cavalrymen, he sent five hundred dismounted German dragoons with a few loyalists and some Indians to Bennington, not far toward the east. It is probable that Burgoyne was led into this error by too implicit a reliance on a statement to the effect that numerous loyalists were waiting in the vicinity of Bennington for the arrival of the king's troops in order to show their loyalty. Indeed, it seems

The Loyalists.

that Stark's shirt-sleeved farmers were at first mistaken for the promised loyalists. This was not the only time in the war that faith in the existence of loyalists cost the British heavy losses. A large minority, indeed, according to some writers, a majority of the people, was still loyal to the king- in a half-hearted sort of way. These were, for the most part, men of moderate views, who preferred remaining neutral to fighting on either side. When forced to take sides, they probably took part against the king, as their radical neighbours were nearer at hand and better able to annoy them than were the king's forces. On the other hand, if the king had shown his power to protect them, they would have been on his side. Of course there were many loyalists who devoted their lives and their fortunes to the king's cause; but the great mass of that party simply desired to be let alone. The first detachment sent by Burgoyne was captured by Stark and his men from western Massachusetts and New Hampshire (Aug. 16, 1777), who sent a relieving force staggering back to the main army. There is something almost pitiable in the fate of these heavy-armed German dismounted dragoons thus sent to their death in a wilderness. At about the same time, another disaster befell Burgoyne on his other flank.

With a strong body of light-armed troops, St Leger marched

St Leger's Campaign.

from Canada to co-operate with Burgoyne by the way of Lake Ontario and the Mohawk River. Guarding the portage between the lake and the river stood Fort Stanwix or Schuyler, near the site of the present town of Rome. St Leger laid siege to this post, and defeated a relieving force commanded by the gallant Herkimer at Oriskany (Aug. 6, 1777); but on hearing that Arnold with a strong detachment was marching against him, St Leger abandoned the siege, and retreated in all haste to Canada. These two disasters deprived Burgoyne of his light troops and cavalry.

III.]

Burgoyne's Campaign.

The Saratoga Convention, 1777.

93

Passing the Hudson, he pushed on and, advancing in three columns through a wilderness, he was suddenly attacked with great fury by the Americans, led by Arnold and Morgan, at a clearing known as Freeman's Farm on the afternoon of September 19. Before he could get his army well in hand, the Americans retired to the main army under Gates. This general had superseded Schuyler, who was not trusted by the New Englanders. Gates had placed his army across the road, on Bemis Heights, where the hills come close to the river-bank. Burgoyne also placed his army in intrenchments. On October 7th a sharp battle was fought. The Americans, led by Arnold, who meantime had been dismissed from his command by Gates, penetrated the centre of the British line. That night Burgoyne retreated to Saratoga, but when he again reached the river he found a strong body of Americans posted on the other bank. Soon the left of the American line was extended and there was no alternative save surrender. On October 17th (1777) the British laid down their arms and began their march to Boston. It would be well if the student could stop here. The Saratoga Convention stipulated that the British soldiers should embark on transports to be provided by their government, and should not serve again in North America until exchanged. Weakness or good-nature had induced Gates to grant these terms. The convention was not carried out in good faith by either party to it. The public property was not given up by the British, and a demand for a descriptive list of the prisoners drew from Burgoyne some ill-advised words, to the effect that the convention had been broken by the Americans. These things, trifling in themselves, may be held, in some slight degree, to justify the Continental Congress in its refusal to ratify the convention. The real reason, however, for that action seems to have been a natural fear on the part of the French government lest the "convention troops" should be used against

them in Europe. On moral grounds this action of Congress cannot be defended, but legally it was justifiable.

The French

The French monarchy now decided to take an active part against England in alliance with the Americans. Alliance, Jan.- In 1776, Silas Deane, Arthur Lee, and Benjamin Feb. 1778. Franklin arrived in Paris as commissioners from the United States. The French government, welcoming a chance to injure Great Britain, lent the Americans money and sold them arms, munitions of war, and other military equipment. The transaction was somewhat clumsily disguised under the form of a business negotiation with a supposed Spanish mercantile firm whose only partner was Beaumarchais, the playwright. The plot was suspected by Lord Stormont, then British Ambassador at Paris, and the French government felt obliged to elude his vigilance by placing obstacles in the way of the transportation of these supplies from the French arsenals to America. As an offset to the extra expense thus incurred, a million francs was placed in Beaumarchais's hands. The supplies procured in this roundabout way were of the greatest assistance to the Americans. Further than this, the French seemed unwilling to go. But when the great victory at Saratoga became known at Paris, all obstacles were removed. France recognized the independence of the United States, and (1778) concluded with the Americans treaties of commerce and of eventual alliance in case Great Britain should begin hostilities against her old rival. The announcement of her action was communicated to the British government in a manner inviting war, and Great Britain at once declared war against France. Lord Chatham proposed to withdraw the armies from America, win back the affection of the Americans, and together combat the Bourbon power. It is possible that in his hands such a policy might have succeeded. The king, however, refused to appoint him prime minister, suggesting that, perhaps, he might take office under Lord North! That minister proposed to abandon